Writing in English; a modern school composition

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Harbard College Library

FROM THE FUND OF

CHARLES MINOT
(Class of 1828).

Received om | Go I9 Ol.

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<b . “LE Ge

FEB 27 1901

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9278,57-

MAXWELL’S ENGLISH COURSE.

FIRST BOOK IN ENGLISH.
For Use iti Elementary Grades.

INTRODUCTORY LESSONS IN ENGLISH
GRAMMAR.
For Use in Grammar Grades.

ADVANCED LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAM-
MAR.
For Use in Higher Grammar Classes and
in High Schools.
WRITING IN ENGLISH.
For Use in Higher Grammar Classes and
in High Schools.

Copygient, 1900, BY
W. H. MAXWELL.
AND
G. J. SMITH.

WRIT. IN ENG.
Ww, P. 2

PREFACE

It would doubtless be presumptuous to imagine that
this book, as a guide to the preéminently important school
subject of learning to write English, avoids all the faults
of its predecessors, or contains more than a portion of
their merits. But unless a text-book is thought to possess
some definite advantages over the others in its field, it
has no excuse for being. Attention is therefore directed
to the following prominent features of this elementary
treatise on Writing in English : —

1. The general plan of the development of the subject
is noteworthy, as proceeding from the study and produc-
tion of entire compositions, in the first chapters, to the
study of the next order of composition-units, well-made
paragraphs, then to sentence-construction, and, at length,
to the smallest units of composition, words. Since it
would, however, be unwise to complete any one of these
great divisions of the subject before attending at all to
the others, this general order, while it is kept in view
throughout, is modified as shown in the Table of Con-
tents; to which, and to its prefatory note, attention is
requested. This plan is justified not only by the estab-
lished principle of teaching from the whole to the parts,
but by the experience of all able instructors in English,
that nothing is more certain to kill a pupil’s interest in
composition than to compel him to begin the subject by
laboring over the minutie of style and diction, as em-

bodied in rules of good usage and exemplified in uncon-
3

4 PREFACE

nected sentences. There should be composition, natural
expression of connected ideas or observations, from the
first. The study of the principles of sentence-construc-
tion and of choice of words should be made secondary,
because the pupil does not perceive the value of such
study to him, until, through the willing production of
compositions expressing his own conceptions of life and
nature, he has learned to feel the need of improving him-
self in the use of language. Interested observation and
spontaneous thought require for their growth an atmos-
phere of freedom. Therefore it is that, in the early
study of composition, we should aim, not at a finical re-
modeling of lay-figure sentences, but at copious and nat-
ural expression ; and should defer a studied manipulation
of sentences and of words until the student himself per-
ceives the use of it. He must have something to say
which he feels is worth saying and worth saying well.
In this, as in other concerns, it is the spirit that giveth
life, and it is the letter that killeth.

2. The method of studying models of good composition
is prominent in this book. The number of extracts pre-
sented from good authors is large, and the character of
them is such as to give of itself an interest and a value
to the book. These selections are used as models not
only of style, but of composition, —that is, of the skill-
fully ordered presentation of ideas. It is, in fact, as
modelseof putting-together (composition) that they are
first employed; the student’s attention is primarily di-
rected to the arrangement of their parts. Distinct from
this use and yet along with it goes the employment of
the selections as models for direct imitation. The effective
influence of imitation in the molding of a good style is
something that has been profited by, in schools, far too
little. In support of it may be urged not only Dr. John-

PREFACE 5

son’s advice, “to give days and nights to the study of
Addison,” and the recorded indebtedness of writers no
less admirable than Irving and Robert Louis Stevenson to
their conscious imitation of models, but, in fact, every
person’s unconscious response, in his own manner of
writing, to the style of the authors he has read most and
with most attention. The helpfulness of imitation is
indeed one of the strongest bonds between the study of
literature and the study of composition.

It may be well, before passing to the next heading, to
direct attention also to the frequent employment, through-
out the book, of the inductive method in the presentation
of new points. It is strongly recommended that the
teacher, by multiplying illustrations before calling for a
principle, proceed in this method to a far greater extent
than is possible in a text-book of strictly limited size.

8. Particular notice is directed to. the great number
and the practical character of the exercises in this book.
They have been planned with great care, and their con-
tents looked after no less sedulously than the order of
their progression. It may fairly be said that the exer-
cises constitute the active and living element in the book,
—they should become, in the schoolroom, the outward
form, concealing and vitalizing the skeleton-structure of
the study.

In conclusion, a few words may be said regarding the
use of this book by the teacher. Conditions vary so much
in the myriad schools of this country, especially, perhaps,
with regard to the study of English, that work adapted in
many schools to the upper grammar grades may in others
be precisely what is needed in the first year of the high
school. It is difficult to present the principles of English
composition simply enough to meet the understanding
of children of grammar grades; and in fact the cardinal

6 PREFACE

objection to nearly every composition text-book designed
for high-school use is that it presents the subject in a
manner too dry or too difficult for the average high-school
pupil.

Since the sensible teacher always regards a text-book
as a mere instrument, a means not an end, he will feel
free to omit, in his use of any book, whatever portions
seem either too difficult or otherwise ill adapted for his
particular class of pupils. He will, further, in order to
meet the needs of his pupils or to make the hard-and-fast
plan of a book flexible in use, deviate from its order of
exercises or even from its order of contents, as may seem
to him wise and good. Thus it would undoubtedly be
well to work at some of the chapters in this book two at
a time. Work in the sentence-making chapters (Chap-
ters VI, VIII, etc.) might very well go on concurrently
with work in description, narration, or paragraphing. In
fact, the book will probably yield the best results if used,
to some extent, in this way. Nevertheless, the arrange-
ment of the chapters and the progressive system of the
exercises are strongly recommended as a guide, in a gen-
eral way, to the natural development of the subject ; and
they will, it is hoped, commend themselves, both in theory
and in practice, to all who use the book.

CONTENTS

—_——soo-————

NorTE TO TEACHERS. — Attention is asked to the remarks in the Preface,
regarding the plan of this book. It is to be noted that the subject of compo-
sition is treated here under the following divisions : —

(a) Compositions, Chapters I, II, V, VII, XI, XIV.
(ob) Paragraphing, Chapters III, IX.
(c) Sentence work, Chapters IV, VI, VIII, X, XII, XIII.

PAGE
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CHAPTER
I. Kinps or CompositI0N . . . ‘ . 9
General Introduction (Exercises 1-4).
Narration, Description, etc., explained (Exercises 5-8
and Lists of Subjects).
II. Srupy or DescriPrion . . 17
The Four Requisites in Good Composition ‘(Exercises
9-12).
Planning and Outlining of Descriptions (Exercises 13-16).
PARAGRAPHING. . . . 387
Topics, Indention, Topic Sentences (Exercises 17-20).
Paragraph Making in Description (Exercises 21-25).
IV. Unity wn Sentences (Exercises 26-30) . . . - 68
V. More asour DEscrIPTIon . . . . . . 60
Points of View ; Use of Comparison.
Statement of Effects and of Sense Impressions (Exercises
31-41).
VI. SENTENCE Forms — . . . . . - 76
Kinds of Elements (Exercises 42, 43).
Kinds of Sentences and Transformations (Exercises
44-50).
VII. Narration . . . . . 90

Outlining a Narrative (Exercises 61-56).
Construction of Narratives (Exercises 5i-05).
7

8 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
VIII. Cuearness In WRITING . . . . . 1
Lack of Unity ; Omissions ; Misuse of Pronouns ; Misuse
of ‘‘which”’’; Misplaced “Moditiers (Exercises 60-71).

IX. CoNnTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS . . . 121
Particulars ; Instances ; ; Comparisons ; Effects : Reasons
(Exercises 72-85).
X. Empnasis IN WRITING . . . . . . 148

Forms of Sentences (Exercises 86-90).
Arrangement of Words (Exercises 91-97).
Choice of Words (Exercises 98-105).

XI. Letrer Writine . : 162
Formal Notes, Informal Notes and Letters, Business
Letters (Exercises 106-112).

XII. Figures or Speecnu (Exercises 118-121). . . - 177

XIII. Cnorcr or Worps . . 187
Correctness in Diction and Syntax (Exercises 122-198),
Choice in Diction: Use of Synonyms and of Suggestive
Words (Exercises 129-136).

XIV. ExposiTion AND ARGUMENT. . . . . . - 206
Exposition (Exercises 137-139).
Argument (Exercises 140-146).

APPENDIX
I. Marks ror USE IN CRITICISM OF COMPOSITIONS . . 217
II. Enouish Worps . . . . . . . . . 221
III, Ruves ror PunctuaTION, CAPITALIZATION, AND SPELLING
(Exercises 147-149) . . . ; . . . 282
IV. Verses anD VERSE Maxine (Exercises 150-153) . . 244

V. Nores on AUTHORS REFERRED TO OR QUOTED IN THIS BooK 259

INDEX . . . . . . . . ° . . . 267

WRITING IN ENGLISH

CHAPTER I
KINDS OF COMPOSITION

THERE 1s hardly anything to be learned in school
that 1s more important to us, all our lives, than how
to talk and write properly and skillfully. We can
see one reason for this, when we think how con-
stantly all of us use language; and another reason
occurs to us, when we think why it is that we ever
say anything at all. We talk and write to let other
people know what we have seen or thought or done,
or to tell them what we wish them to do; and it is
highly important to us that we accomplish these —
purposes. |

But suppose, as it often happens, that those to
whom we express ourselves fail to understand exactly
what we are trying to tell them, or that they are
not interested in what we have said. Then, of course,
we should better have said nothing. There is no use
in our writing at all, unless what we write has these
two characteristics: First, others must be made to
understand our meaning, readily and accurately;
second, what we say must be worth taking care to
say well ; it must be interesting.

9

10 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Now, in order that other persons may understand
exactly what we mean to say, we must study how to
form our sentences in the best possible ways, and how
to put together our compositions. A good many of
the chapters in this book tell about these matters,
which, though they must be studied carefully, should
nevertheless be interesting. For it is always inter-
esting to learn how to do a thing well, and we should
learn to think of our language as a very fine and a
very wonderful tool or instrument which we wish to
use skillfully. It is certainly worth much trouble to
learn that. For think how a carpenter tries to get
skill in the use of a chisel, or how the musician prac-
tices the playing of his violm. Language is an instru-
ment both of use and of pleasure; we all of us employ
it every day of our lives, and we may learn to get
much enjoyment both from our own skillful use of it,
and in appreciating the skillful use of it by others.
Is it not really worth a great deal of study to learn
to understand the masterly use of this instrument ?

Then, as for interesting others in what we say, we
would give this rule: The best way for you to be sure
of interesting others is to write about what really
interests you. Every one sees things, hears about
things, does things that interest himself. These are,
for each one of us, the very things we talk about or
think about; they are what we should write about.

Exercise 1. Lists of subjects.—(a) Make a list of the
most interesting things you have ever seen, either near
your home (as buildings, places, celebrations, etc.), or in

KINDS OF COMPOSITION li

school, or away from home. (6) Make a list of the most
interesting things you now remember that ever happened
to you or to any person you know very well (as journeys,
excursions, outings, accidents, or the like). (c) Make a
list of persons or objects you have heard of or read of and
would like to learn more about. ;

Exercise 2. Written review. — Write a short statement
of what has already been said in this chapter—why we
make compositions, what we have to learn in studying
composition, what we should write about, and why the
study is important.

Exercise 3. Punctuation. — Look at all the punctuation
marks so far used in this chapter, make a list of the
different marks, and see if there are any places where a
mark is used for no reason that you can see. If so, find
out the reason from Appendix III, or from some person.

Exercise 4. Spelling. — Wake a list of the words used
80 far in this chapter that you have sometimes misspelled,
or have known some one else to misspell.

Note concerning the exercises. — Each of the pupils should
have a blank book and keep in it all the exercises which the
teacher asks the class or the individual to write. The pages of
the book should be numbered. In most cases the pupil should
first write his answer or exercise on paper and correct it all
he can before he copies it into the book. All the corrections
made afterward should be made in red ink, so that the original
writing can be easily seen by the pupil, the teachér, or any one
else.

Do not be afraid that because of these corrections the book
will not look neat. They show that you are learning something.
Besides, if an exercise is much corrected, and if it is an impor-
tant one, you can and should recopy it neatly in another part
of the book, with all the improvements and corrections made.
This should nearly always be done when the exercise is a

12 WRITING IN ENGLISII

composition that has been much corrected. Whenever you
recopy an exercise, write at the end of the original the words,
“Rewritten on page—.” Reserve a page or two at the begin-
ning of the book for a table of contents.

Compositions may be either written or oral, but
when we think about what sorts of ideas we express,
we find that either written or oral composition may
be of four kinds. We are now going to divide com-
positions according to what we say in them.

The composition may be the story of what hap-
pened to somebody, really or in imagination; then
it is. called narration. Story books, histories, anec-
dotes, biographies, are all narratives, because they
tell in some regular order what occurred or was done
during a certain time. How you spent your last
holiday, would be a subject of this sort. In the
letters we write we often narrate happenings or
events. There is at the end of this chapter a short
list of subjects for narration.

Or what you wish to do may be to tell what some
person or object or scene looks like, or what sort of
person or thing it is. This kind of composition is
called description. It tells the appearance and quali-
ties of persons or objects. You can select many sub-
jects for this kind of composition in the very room
where you are sitting, and you can find many when-
ever you walk down the street or into the fields.
Some subjects for description are given on page 1d.

Sometimes we wish to show that a statement is
true, or that it is false; and then we write or talk .

KINDS OF COMPOSITION 18

argument. Of course, when we argue the subject
must always be a sentence, for it needs a sentence
to state a truth or an untruth. A few subjects for
argument are given on page 16.

Then, again, we may wish to explain a subject
that interests us — to tell all we know about it. For
example, suppose we take “Pencils.” In writing
upon a subject like this we should hardly describe
pencils—there are too many kinds, and most of
them would not be very interesting, for everybody
knows what pencils look like; we should not have
any happening to tell about, nor any statement to
argue about; but if we knew, or could find out,
how pencils are made, and where the lead comes
from, and what different kinds of pencils there are,
and so on, we might give some interesting informa-
tion. Compositions of this sort, which explain and
tell all about a subject, are called expositions. Most
school books are expositions. A list of subjects for
exposition is given on page 16.

Of course these four kinds of composition are not
always kept separate. If you write about your last
railway journey, you will probably tell what hap-
pened and also describe what you saw, and in your
writing you have narration and description mingled.
Nearly every story combines these two kinds of com-
position. In exposition and in argument, too, you
will be very likely to have some description here and
there, and perhaps some narration. But it is better
to keep the four kinds of composition separate in your

14 WRITING IN ENGLISH

mind, so that at any rate you will know what you
are doing. Besides, if we are to learn how to de-
scribe, and how to narrate, and so on, it will be much
easier if, at first, we take up these kinds of writing
one by one. So we shall begin Chapter II with
description. :

Exercise 5. Kinds of subjects. — For what kinds of
composition are the following subjects suitable?

1. Flax. 2. A rain storm. 3. It is more agreeable to
travel by steamboat than by railroad. 4. How paper is
made. 5. Clouds. 6. The dandelion. 7. The story of
the invention of the telegraph. 8. A morning walk.
9. Our school building. 10. The life of a butterfly.

Exercise 6. Kinds of subjects.— (a) Taking the sub-
jects you mentioned in Exercise 1, tell for what kinds of
composition they are suitable. (b) What kind of com-
position was called.for in Exercise 2?

Exercise 7. Lists of subjects. — (a) Write three amus-
ing or odd subjects for description. (b) Write three sub-
jects for accurate, careful description. (c) Write three
subjects you have heard argued. (d) Write three inter-
estin$ subjects for exposition, suggested by objects seen at
home or at school or in street windows. (e) Write three
subjects for narration.

Exercise 8. Selections for copying or brief paraphras-
ing. — (a) Find at home in a paper or magazine or book
a good, brief description of a person or an object; bring ut
or a copy of it to school. (b) Find and copy an amusing or
an interesting brief narrative, as an anecdote. (ce) Tell
the anecdote to the class at school. (d) Find and copy a
brief piece of exposition or explanation. (e) Write a brief
account of some argument you have heard or read, stating
some of the reasons given as proofs.

KINDS OF COMPOSITION 15

Brier Lists oF SUBJECTS

Note. —It is not intended that compositions should be
written on any of these subjects at present. They are given
here merely for further illustration of the different kinds of
compositions.

I. Description 1s the setting forth of the appear-
ances and qualities of persons or objects.

1. My dog. 2. The way our grandfathers dressed. 3. A
house fly under a magnifying glass. 4. An odd visitor.
5. Anold-time mansion. 6. Astrangeoldlady. 7. A portrait.
8. A scene in the country (a picture). 9. The Angelus (a
picture). 10. Our schoolhouse (outside view). 11. My room
at home. 12. A secondhand bookstore. 13. A striking show
window. 14. The first railway train. 15. The fire last Thurs-
day night. 16. An old piece of furniture. 17. A certain tree.
18. View in the park. 19. What I heard and saw in the
woods. 20. A successful newsboy.

II. Narration is the setting forth in some intended
order of real or imaginary connected happenings.

1. An incident observed in a street car. 2. Account of a
ball game. 3. The events of a Saturday excursion. 4. My
last railway journey. 5. The story of a poor boy. 6. How
Ethel helped support her mother. 7. An amusing incident.
8. A trip by water. 9. A ghost story. 10. A theft, and how
the thief was caught. 11. HowI spent my Christmas vacation.
12, An unpleasant evening. 13. A ramble down Broadway.
14. The adventures of a lucky boy. 15. The life of William
Shakspere. 16. The story of coal. 17. The history of the
adoption of our national flag. 18. The future histories of
our classmates. 19. A hunting adventure. 20. A day on the
farm. |

16 WRITING IN ENGLISH

III. Exposition, or explanatory composition, is the
setting forth of the nature and relations of a substance,
a class of objects, or an idea.

1. How food is digested. 2. Earthworms. 3. How base-
ball is played. 4. Birds of prey. 5. Why spring comes.
6. The value of geography. 7. What is courage? 8. How a
boat is sailed. 9. The making of a book. 10. An education
for business life. 11. Timepieces. 12. Precious stones.
13. How paper is made. 14. How a knight was educated.
15. The circulation of the blood. ,

IV. Argument is the setting forth of proofs or dis-
proofs of a proposition, and the overthrowing of proofs
offered by one’s opponents.

1. Arithmetic is less useful than geography. 2. Should the
law forbid the sale of intoxicating drinks? 3. The United
States should not retain the Philippines. 4. Athletics in school
should be encouraged. 5. Capital punishment should not be
used. 6. Does higher education fit one for business life?
7. Should education be compulsory? 8. Is war ever right?
9. Lowell was a greater poet than Longfellow. 10. Itis some-
times wise for workmen to strike.

CHAPTER II
STUDY OF DESCRIPTION

Wuart is the object in writing descriptions? When
we understand what people write descriptions for, we
may learn in what respects we need skill, or what
things we must see to when we write. Our aim in
describing anything is to let others know how it
impresses us — what it 1s, as we see it—and to
cause others to see it in imagination, and to feel
about it as we do. Now we cannot possibly tell all
there is to be observed in even a small object. For
instance, we could not clearly tell in words about all
the spots and markings, the colors, and the exact
shape in minutest detail, of a single apple. When
we describe anything, therefore, we must select only
those points that seem to us worth mentioning, the
things that strike us and that we wish our readers to
see and feel. We must also keep to the subject, so as
to avoid confusing our readers; but, on the other
hand, we must not leave out anything that ought
to be mentioned. Finally, we must arrange the points
of our description skillfully, so as to make what we
say interesting, and so as to produce on our readers a
clear impression.

_ WRIT. IN ENG. —2 17

18 WRITING IN ENGLISII

In good descriptions, therefore (and the same is
true of all good compositions and, indeed, of all good
works of art), will be found these four qualities:
1, skillful selection ; 2, unity; 3, completeness; 4, plan.

Selection implies that the writer has a purpose in
view, and that he chooses, from all that he might
mention, those particular points that are interesting
and important for his purpose. This purpose may
be merely to give full and accurate information (as
in the description of the starfish on page 30); or it
may be to entertain; or, more usually, it is to produce
an emotional effect upon the reader, that is, to cause
the reader to feel as the writer wishes him to feel.

Unity requires that the writer shall not wander
from his subject; that is, that he shall not bring in
anything which is foreign to the subject. If you
were describing a house, and should break off in the
midst of your description, to tell of some events that
happened in the house, perhaps years before, you
would be forgetting the principle of unity. Unity
means oneness; each composition must be a well-
made whole.

Completeness requires that nothing necessary or
important be omitted. If you were describing a
man’s face, and should say nothing of his eyes or
of his expression, your description would lack com-
pleteness,

The requirement of plan simply means that a writer
must say what he has to say, in some well-thought-
out order or arrangement of the parts. Plan is fully

STUDY OF DESCRIPTION 19

as important as selection, unity, or comple‘eness, and
we shall have to study very carefully how to plan
well all that we write.

Now let us read and consider the following descrip-
tion of a scene in a court room. In London, the
judge (called here the “ Lord Chancellor’) and the
lawyers (called “gentlemen of the bar’’) wear gray
wigs and silken gowns. This description was written
by Charles Dickens : — |

The High Court of Chancery. (From Bleak House, by Charles
Dickens, Ch. XXIV.) .

When we came to the Court, there was the Lord Chancellor
sitting in great state and gravity, on the bench, with the
mace and seals on a red table below him, and an immense
flat nosegay, like a little garden, which scented the whole
Court. Below the table, again, was a long row of solici-
tors, with bundles of papers on the matting at their feet;
and then there were the gentlemen of the bar in wigs and
gowns — some awake and some asleep, and one talking and
3 no one paying much attention to what he said. The Lord

Chancellor leaned back in his very easy chair, with his
elbow on the cushioned arm, and his forehead resting on his
hand; some of those who were present dozed; some read
the newspapers ; some walked about, or whispered in groups:
all seemed perfectly at their ease, by no means in a hurry,
very unconcerned, and extremely comfortable.

be

Now mark, in the first place, that Dickens by no
means tells all that he might have told about this
court scene. There were, no doubt, many details to
be seen that he does not mention. You could not,
from this description, form an entirely clear mental]

~

20 WRITING IN ENGLISH

picture of the place, or make a plan or map of the
court room. He selects the points that suit his pur-
pose. This purpose is to make you feel what an indif-
ferent, unfeeling, machinelike thing the court was.
The care and worry and sorrow of the persons whose
affairs were disposed of there, seemed to be nothing
to those drowsy and extremely comfortable officials.

In the second place, the description is a unit; not
one thing is mentioned that has not to do with the
scene described.

In the third place, this description, though brief,
is complete enough to include all that helps out the
purpose in view. There we see the persons present,
how they are placed in the room, and what they are
all domg; and we see the most striking objects in
the room, the easy chair of the Chancellor, the table,
the mace’ and the seals, the newspapers, the lawyers’
papers, and the bouquet.

Finally, the plan of the description is very clear

‘and excellent. Our attention is first directed to

the figure a visitor would naturally observe in the
first glance, that of the presiding judge, the Lord
Chancellor. The first sentence describes briefly the
general appearance of the Chancellor, and tells of
the objects near him. The other persons present are
then mentioned, with their surroundings (sentence 2).
Then the third sentence tells what the various per-
sons present, from the Lord Chancellor down, are
doing. The plan might be stated thus: —

1 Look up ‘‘mace’? in the dictionary.

STUDY OF DESCRIPTION 21

1. Situation of the persons and objects observed.
2. Occupations of the persons.

Exercise 9. Study of the qualities of descriptions. —
(a) In a similar way study the following descriptions
with regard to their selected details, their unity, their
completeness, and their plan. (1) Ask yourself what the
Seneral impression is that the writer wishes to produce,
and note the points selected for the purpose; (2) note
whether the writer keeps to the business in hand and
avoids speaking of things that have no sufficient con-
nection with the subject; (3) note whether each descrip-
tion mentions everything we should naturally wish to
know about the subject; and (4) note whether there is a
well-defined plan. (b) Then write down the subjects of
the parts of each description, in the order in which the
parts appear.

The Kitchen of an English Inn. (From The Sketch Book, by
Washington Irving; paper on The Stage Coach.)

As we drove into the great gateway of the inn, I saw on
one side the light of a rousing kitchen fire beaming through a
window. I entered and admired, for the hundredth time, that
picture of convenience, neatness, and broad honest enjoyment,
the kitchen of an English inn. It was of spacious dimensions,
hung round with copper and tin vessels highly polished, and
decorated here and there with a Christmas green. Hams,
tongues, and flitches of bacon were suspended from the ceil-
ing; a smokejack made its ceaseless clanking beside the fire-
place, and a clock ticked in one corner. A well-scoured deal
table extended along one side of the kitchen, with a cold round
of beef and other hearty viands upon it, over which two foam-
ing tankards of ale seemed mounting guard. Travelers of
inferior order were preparing to attack this stout repast, while
others sat smoking and gossiping over their ale on two high-

22 WRITING IN ENGLISH

backed oaken settles beside the fire. Trim housemaids were
hurrying backward and forward under the directions of a fresh,
bustling landlady; but still seizing an occasional moment to
exchange a flippant word and have a rallying laugh with the
group round the fire.

Holden’s House after the Rains. (From Without Benefit of
Clergy, by Rudyard Kipling.)

He found that the rains had torn down the mud pillars of
the gateway, and the heavy wooden gate that had guarded his
life hung drunkenly from one hinge. There was grass three
inches high in the courtyard; Pir Khan’s lodge was empty,
and the sodden thatch sagged between the beams. A gray
squirrel was in possession of the veranda, as if the house
had been untenanted for thirty years instead of three days.
Ameera’s mother had removed everything except some mil-

dewed matting. The tick-tick of the little scorpions as they —

~ hurried across the floor was the only sound in the house.
Ameera’s room and that other one where Tota had lived were
heavy with mildew; and the narrow staircase leading to the
roof was streaked and stained with rain-borne mud. Holden
saw all these things and came out again.

Jo. (From Little Women, by Miss L. M. Alcott, Ch. I. Little,
Brown,and Company, by. permission.)

Fifteen-year old Jo was very tall, thin, and brown, and re-
minded one of a colt; for she never seemed to know what to
do with her long limbs, which were very much in her way.
She had a decided mouth, a comical nose, and sharp, gray eyes,
which appeared to see everything, and were by turns fierce,
funny, or thoughtful. Her long, thick hair was her one beauty;
but it was usually bundled into a net to be out of her way.
Round shoulders had Jo, big hands and feet, a fly-away look
to her clothes, and the uncomfortable appearance of a girl wha
was rapidly shooting up into a.woman, and didn’t like it.

STUDY OF DESCRIPTION 23

Exercise 10. Reproductions. — (a) Read over again,
carefully, twice, Irving’s description of the big kitchen
of the inn; then take your list (see Exercise 9, b) of
points mentioned in the several sentences, and write out
from memory what Irving says.’ In doing this, try to
keep very close to his way of writing, imitate his choice
of words and his formation of sen‘ences. See how
nearly like Irving you can write. (b) Give the same
description orally.

Exercise 11. Imitation of model.— Wow select some
similar subject for description, a scene in a restaurant,
or a hotel, or a sitting room, with a number of people
in it, variously occupied. Then, with Irving’s descrip-
tion open before you, write your description, as nearly
as possible in the manner of Irving.

1 Although the rules for the use of capitals and of punctuation marks
are given in the appendix, a few of the most important are printed here,
to serve as a reminder : —

Capitals should be used to mark —
The first word of a sentence, or of.a line of poetry.
The first word of a somewhat long quotation ; as, John replied, ‘* The
man then, after,”’ etc.
Proper names, titles, names of the Deity.
~ The pronoun I, and the interjections O, Oh.

Periods should be used to mark —
The close of all sentences, except direct questions (?) or exclamator

sentences (1).
Abbreviations ; as, 7. A. Kerley, M.D.; Mon., Aug. 7, etc.

Commas mark most of the natural pauses in sentences, and are used par-
ticularly —
After nouns of address ; as, John, come here.
After words in a list or series, where ‘‘and”’ or ‘‘or’’ is omitted.
Before and after explanatory-or thrown-in words, phrases, or clauses.

The pupil should avoid using slang words. If there is any doubt as toa
word’s being good English, look it up in the dictionary.

24 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 12. Imitation of model. — Take for a subject
some old ruined or deserted house, or a shanty; study
carefully Mr. Kipling’s description of Holden’s house;
note the plan; then write an imitation of his descrip-
tion, but using your own swhject.

Now a further study of the descriptions already '
given will help us in learning how to plan our own
compbdsitions.

We observe first that in beginning the description
each of the writers quoted tells us what first catches
the attention, gives us, as it were, the effect of a
single glance. Then he goes on to mention the
important details in some regular order. To have
a regular order, he must group the details under
well-marked divisions. Now, to see to these matters
properly, we must think out our plan beforehand.
To have a good plan in a description or in any
other kind of composition 1s very important; there
can be no excellent description without it. Most
persons cannot make good plans for their composi-
tions while they are writing; the plan should always
be made beforehand. No builder would set to work
on a house till the plan was decided upon; so no
good writing can be done without a similar atten-
tion to plan. Writing down the scheme or plan of
a composition is called outlining. To make out-
lines before writing not only leads us to form a good
plan, but it helps us to secure both completeness
and unity in the points selected for our composition.

The study of the descriptions already given may

STUDY OF DESCRIPTION 25

teach us the following points about the outlining of
descriptions : —

1. We may or may not have an introduction to our
description. In the selections given from Dickens
and from Mr. Kipling the description begins at once.
In the selection from Irving the first sentence may
be called introductory; it is the second that takes
us with the writer into the inn kitchen.

2. The description begins with a glance; what would
be naturally noticed first of all 1s mentioned first and
briefly, with a statement of the impression it makes.

Thus the glance view strikes, as it were, the key-
note of the whole description.

3. In the detailed description which follows, and
which makes up most of the body of the description,
the writer proceeds according to some definite plan
by means of dividing the subject into parts or fea-
tures, arranging these in what seems the best order,
and then giving such details or particulars under
each division as aid in producing the effect desired.

This is illustrated in the following selection : —
Description of Bleak House. (From Bleak House, by Charles

Dickens, Ch. VI.)

1 It was one of those delightfully irregular houses where
you go up and down steps out of one room into another, and
where you come upon more rooms when you think you have
seen all there are, and where there is a bountiful provision
of little halls and passages, and where you find still older
cottage rooms in unexpected places, with lattice windows

2 and green growth pressing through them. Mine, which
we entered first, was of this kind, with an up-and-down roof,

26

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on

co

~

oo

10

WRITING IN ENGLISH

that had more corners in it than I ever counted afterward,
and a chimney (there was a wood fire on the hearth), paved
all around with pure white tiles, in every one of which a
bright miniature,of the fire was blazing. Out of this room
you went down two steps, into a charming little sitting room,
looking down upon a flower garden. Out of this you went
up three steps into Ada’s bedroom, which had a fine broad
window, commanding a beautiful view. Out of this room,
you passed into a little gallery with which the other best
rooms (only two) communicated, and so, by a little stair-
case of shallow steps, down into the hall. But if, instead
of going out at Ada’s door, you came back into my room,
and went out at the door by which you had entered it,
and turned up a few crooked steps that turned off in
an unexpected manner from the stairs, you lost yourself
in passages, with mangles in them, and three-cornered
tables, and a Native-Hindoo chair, which was also a sofa,
a box, and a bedstead, and looked in every form something
between a bamboo skeleton and a great bird cage, and had —
been brought from India nobody knew by whom or when.
From there you came on Richard’s room, which was part
library, part sitting room, part bedroom, and seemed indeed
a comfortable compound of many rooms. Out of that you
went straight, with a little interval of passage, to the plain
room where Mr. Jarndyce slept, all the year round, with
his window open, his bedstead without any furniture stand-
ing in the middle of the floor for more air, and his cold bath
gaping for him in a smaller room adjoining. Out of that,
you came into another passage where there were back stairs,
and where you could hear the horses being rubbed down,
outside the stable, and being told to Hold up, and Get over,
as they slipped about very much on the uneven stones.
Or you might, if you came out at another door (every room
had at least two doors), go straight down to the hall again
by half a dozen steps and a low archway, wondering how
you ever got back, or had ever got out of it,

STUDY OF DESCRIPTION OF

The plan of this description may be expressed in
the following outline : —

I. Glance — Delightful irregularity of Bleak House,
illustrated in its arrangement of rooms and
passages

II. Detailed description
a. The first circuit to the hall

1. My room
a. Its roof
b. The fireplace

2. The sitting room, how you reached it,
and what you saw from its window |

3, Ada’s bedroom

4. The gallery and stairway to the hall

6. The second circuit
1. The passages from the other side of my
room |
a. Mangles and tables
b. The Indian chair
2. Richard’s room

3. Mr. Jarndyce’s bedroom
a. Open window
b. Bedstead
c. Cold bath

4. Passage near the stable
a. Stairs
b. Stable sounds heard

5. Stairway to the hall

28 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Let us now take a description of a person, and
outline it :—

Description of Mr. Hyde. (From Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, by
_ Robert Louis Stevenson, p. 58.)

I had never set eyes on him before, so much was certain.
He was small, as I have said; I was struck besides with the
shocking expression of his face, with his remarkable combina-
tion of great muscular activity and great apparent debility of
constitution.

This person (who had, from the first moment of his entrance,
struck in me what I can only describe as a disgustful curiosity)
was dressed in a fashion that would have made an ordinary
person laughable; his clothes, that is to say, although they
were of rich and sober fabric, were enormously too large for
him in every measurement, —the trousers hanging on his legs
and rolled up to keep them from the ground, the waist of the
coat below his haunches, and the collar sprawling wide upon his
shoulders. Strange to relate, this ludicrous accouterment was
far from moving me to laughter. Rather, as there was some-
thing abnormal and misbegotten in the very essence of the
creature that now faced me — something seizing, surprising,
and revolting —this fresh disparity seemed but to fit in with
and to reinforce it; so that to my interest in the man’s
nature and character there was added a curiosity as to his
origin, his life, his fortune, and status in the world.

I. Glance

a. The man’s strangeness to me
b. Stature

S

Expression of face

Bodily characteristics

STUDY OF DESCRIPTION 29

II. Detailed description

a. The man’s clothes
1. Quality of material
2. Size |

trousers
coat

‘ 6. Impression made by the nan
1. Sense of surprise and revolt
2. Sense of curiosity

Exercise 13. .Outlining of description. — Jn a similar
manner make written outlines of the following descrip-
tions: —

Description of David Gamut. (From The Last of the Mo-
hicans, by James Fenimore Cooper, Ch. I.)

The person of this individual was to the last degree un-
gainly, without being in any particular manner deformed.
He had all the bones and joints of other men, without any of
their proportions. ... His head was large; his shoulders
narrow; his arms long and dangling, while his hands were
small, if not delicate. His legs and thighs were thin, nearly to
emaciation, but of extraordinary length; and his knees would
have been considered tremendous had they not been outdone
by his feet. The ill-assorted and injudicious attire of the in-
dividual only served to render his awkwardness more con-
spicuous. A sky-blue coat, with short and broad skirts and
low cape, exposed a long thin neck and longer and thinner
legs. His nether garment was of yellow nankeen, closely
fitted to the shape, and tied at his bunches of knees with large
knots of white ribbon, a good deal sullied by use. Clouded
-cotton stockings, and shoes, on one of the latter of which was

30 WRITING IN ENGLISH

a plated spur, completed the costume of the lower extremity
of this figure. From beneath the flap of an enormous pocket
of a soiled vest of embossed silk, heavily ornamented with
tarnished silver lace, projected his musical instrument. A
large civil cocked hat, like those worn by clergymen within
the last thirty years, surmounted the whole, furnishing dignity
to a good-natured and somewhat vacant countenance.

Description of the Starfish. (From Life on the Seashore, by

J. H. Emerton, p.-59.) ‘

The starfishes are among the most peculiar animals of the
seashore, and belong to a class, the Echinoderms, others of which
live on land or in fresh water. The common starfishes live
near low water mark, coming above it occasionally, and in
winter retreating to deep water. They live on mollusks, and
are a great nuisance to the oyster growers. They fold them-
selves around an oyster or mussel, turn their stomach out of
their mouth and in between the shells of the bivalve and
digest it without taking it inside théir bodies. The starfishes
move by suckers in the fine grooves on the under side of their
arms. To bring them into use they have to be filled with water
from the water tubes, which receive their supply from the
porous colored spot on the back of the starfish and carry it
through all the arms, giving off a branch to each sucker.

The skin of the starfish is filled with little hard plates and
from it project spines of various shapes. These spines have,
around the base, clusters of little organs which have jaws that
open and shut, for no apparent purpose unless to prevent dirt
from sticking to the skin. At the end of each arm is an eye.

Description of a Street Pageant. (From Varia, by Agnes Rep-
| plier, p. 114. Houghton, Mifflin, and Company, by permis-
sion. )

Suddenly there came the sound of drums playing a gay and
martial air, and in another minute, surrounded by a clamorous
mob, the Sire de Gayant and his family moved slowly into
sight.

STUDY OF DESCRIPTION 31

- Thirty feet high was the Sire de Gayant, and his nodding
plumes overtopped the humble roofs by which he passed.
His steel breastplate glittered in the evening sun; his mighty
mace looked like a May-pole; his countenance was grave and
stern. The human pygmies by his side betrayed their insignifi-
cance at every step. They ran backward and forward, making
all the foolish noises they could. ‘They rode on hobby-horses.
They played ridiculous antics. They were but children, after
all, gamboling irresponsibly at the feet of their own Titanic
toy. Behind the Sire de Gayant came his wife, in brocaded
gown, with imposing farthingale and stomacher. Pearls
wreathed her hair and fell on her massive bosom. Earrings
a handbreadth in size hung from her ears, and a fan as big as
a fire screen was held lightly by a silver chain. Like Lady
Corysande, “her approaching mien was full of majesty ;” yet
she looked affable and condescending, too, as befitted a dame
of parts and noble birth. Her children manifested in their
bearing more of pride and less of dignity. There was even _
something theatrical in the velvet cap and swinging cloak of
her only son; and Mademoiselle Gayant held her head erect in
conscious complacency, while her long brown ringlets fluttered
in the breeze.

Happily, however, there was still another member of this
ancient family, more popular and more well beloved than all
the rest, Mademoiselle Thérése, “1a petite Binbin,” who for two
hundred years has been the friend and idol of every child in
Douai. A sprightly and attractive little girl was Mademoiselle
Thérése, barely eight feet high, and wearing a round cap and
spotless pinafore. In her hand she carried a paper windmill.
She ran hither and thither with uncertain footsteps, pausing
now and then to curtsy prettily to some admiring friends in a
doorway ; and whenever the pressure of the crowd stopped her
progress, the little children clamored to be held up in their
fathers’ arms to kiss her round, smooth cheeks. One by one
they were lifted in the air, and one by one I saw them put
their arms around la Binbin’s neck, and embrace her so

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STUDY OF DESCRIPTION 33

heartily that I wondered how she kept herself clean and un-
crumpled amid these manifold caresses.

Description of the Mansion of Tully-Veolan, from the inner
courtyard. (From Scott’s Waverley, Ch. VIII.) :

The house, which seemed to consist of two or three high,
narrow, and steep-roofed buildings, projecting from each
‘other at right angles, formed one side of the inclosure. It
had been built at a period when castles were no longer
necessary, and when the Scottish architects had not yet ac-
quired the art of designing a domestic residence. The win-
dows were numberless, but very small; the roof had some
nondescript kind of projections, called bartizans, and displayed
at each frequent angle a small turret, rather resembling a
pepper box than a Gothic watchtower. Neither did the front
indicate absolute security from danger. There were loopholes
for musketry, and iron stanchions on the lower windows, prob-

ably to repel any roving band of gypsies.... Stables and other
offices occupied another side of the square. The former were
low vaults, with narrow slits instead of windows. ... Above

these dungeon-looking stables were granaries, called girnels,
and other offices, to which there was access by outside stairs
of heavy masonry. Two battlemented walls, one of which
faced the avenue, and the other divided the court from the
garden, completed the inclosure.

The Burning of Rome, a. v.64. (From The Early Days of
Christianity, by Canon F. W. Farrar, Book I, Ch. IV.)

But the sense of permanent loss was overwhelmed at first by
the immediate confusion and agony of the scene. Amid the
sheets of flame that roared on every side under their dense
canopy of smoke, the shrieks of terrified women and the wail
of infants and children were heard above the crash of falling
houses. The incendiary fires seemed to be bursting forth in so
many directions, that men stood staring in stupefaction at the
destruction of their property or rushed hither and thither in

WRIT. IN ENG.—3

34 WRITING IN ENGLISH

helpless amazement. The lanes and valleys were blocked up
with the concourse of struggling fugitives. Many were suffo-
cated by the smoke, or trampled down in the press. Many
others were burnt to death in their own burning houses, some
of whom purposely flung themselves into the flames in the
depth of their despair. The density of the population that
found shelter in the huge many-storied lodging houses in-
creased the difficulty of escape; and when they had escaped -
with bare life, a vast multitude of homeless, shivering, hungry
human beings — many of them bereaved of their nearest and
dearest relatives, many of them personally injured, and most of
them deprived of their possessions, and destitute of the means
of subsistence — found themselves huddled together in vacant
places in one vast brotherhood of hopeless wretchedness.

Exercise 14. Description from picture.— Observe the
picture of the Viking (page 32) carefully, make a brief
but well-arranged list of the points in it that should be
mentioned, then write the description after the manner
of Cooper’s description of David Gamut.

Exercise 15. Description from picture. — 4/fter observ-
ing carefully what is represented in the picture on
page 35, prepare an outline for a description of it, then
descrive it, orally or in writing, from your outline.

Exercise 16. Outline and original description. — (a) Bring
into the class an outline for a description, by yourself,
of some person seen on the street, or elsewhere. Select a
more or less peculiar-looking person, whom you may see
and observe before working up your description. De-
scriptions from memory are apt to be vague and scanty,
or else inaccurate.

(6) Write the description of the person, following the
outline made. This outline should already be in the
exercise book. When writing the composition, leave a
margin of one inch at the lefe.

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VRARSEM

ik iH

QuEeEN ELIZABETH AND RALEIGH

36 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Note to teachers. — All the written exercises of the pupils
should be inspected at intervals by the teacher, and a certain
proportion of the original compositions should be carefully read
and criticised by the teacher, who should note in the margin
the points wherein the pupil is to correct or improve. There
is a list of marks for criticism given in Appendix I. The
teacher will at first have to use only such marks of criticism
as the pupils are ready to profit by. As the study contin-
ues, more and more of the marks may be employed. The
compositions that have been criticised by the teacher should
be corrected by the pupil in red ink, between the lines, and
then shown again to the teacher. If the changes made are
satisfactory, and the composition 1s an important one, it should
be rewritten in the same book.

An important aim with the teacher, however, should be to
teach each pupil to criticise and improve his own work. As
the study advances, the pupil should become more and more
able, by the help of the text-book and the instructions of the
teacher, to criticise his own writing with certainty, correctness,
and even pleasure. Of course the points in which the pupil is
to criticise his work should at first be few and simple. They
may progressively .increase in number and difficulty, but the
teacher should always afford the pupils in this all possible
guidance and assistance. Nor can the teacher’s own direct
criticism of some proportion of the compositions ever be en-
tirely dispensed with, though the ideal to be worked toward
is the pupil’s well-instructed but independent and self-helping
criticism.

CHAPTER III
PARAGRAPHING

WHEN we write descriptions, or other compositions
of considerable length, they are often or generally
clearer and easier to read if in some way it is made
plain where one part or division ends and the next
begins. For this reason, compositions are almost
always divided into parts or sections called para-
graphs. The beginning of a paragraph is marked
by placing the first word of it a little to the right of
where the lines of writing or print regularly begin.
This setting of a word to the right of the other first
words of the lines is called sndention. The word
“when” at the beginning of this paragraph is in-
dented. If you turn to page 12 in this book, you will
see the paragraphs all marked by indentions. The
words “ The,” “ Or,” “ Sometimes,” “ Then,” and so
on, are indented, because they begin new paragraphs.

Now, since each paragraph stands for a distinct
part of the plan of a composition, it has a distinct
subject of its own. This subject is called the topic
of the paragraph.

In the following description there are, as the inden-
tions show, five paragraphs. The topics of them may
be stated and subdivided thus : —

37

38

WRITING IN ENGLISH

The scene in the garret (including “ introduc-
tion” and “ glance’’)

a. Dimness of the place (introduction)

b. The white-haired shoemaker (glance view)

The old man’s voice

His appearance
a. Tools, etc., about him
b. His face
white beard and hair
hollow cheeks
unnaturally bright eyes
c. His clothmng
shirt
other garments

Special features of the man

a. Huis thin hands

b. His vacant gaze

c. His habit of wandering in attention

. His absent-mindedness

a. Unconscious movements
6. Difficulty of arousing him

The Shoemaker of the Bastille. (From A Tale of Two Cities,

by Charles Dickens, Ch. VI.)
The garret, built to be a dry depository for firewood and the

like, was dim and dark. Such a scanty portion of light was
admitted, that it was difficult, on first coming in, to see any-

thing.

Yet, with his back toward the door, and his face

toward the window, a white-haired man sat on a low bench,
stooping forward and very busy, making shoes.

PARAGRAPHING 39

When he spoke the faintness of the voice was pitiable and
dreadful. It was not the faintness of physical weakness, though
confinement and hard fare no doubt had their part init. Its
deplorable peculiarity was, that it was the faintness of solitude
and disuse. It was like the last feeble echo of a sound made
long and long ago.

The half-opened door was opened a little farther and secured
at that angle for the time. A broad ray of light fell into the
garret, and showed the workman, with an unfinished shoe upon
his lap, pausing in his labor. His few common tools and vari-
ous scraps of leather were at his feet on his bench. He hada
white beard, raggedly cut, but not very long, a hollow face, and
exceedingly bright eyes. The hollowness and thinness of his
face would have caused them to look large, under his yet dark
eyebrows and his confused white hair, though they had been
really otherwise; but they were naturally large, and looked
unnaturally so. His yellow rags of shirt lay open at the throat,
and showed his body to be withered and worn. He, and his
old canvas frock, and his loose stockings, and all his poor tat-
ters of clothes, had, in a long seclusion from direct light and
air, faded down to such a dull uniformity of parchment yellow,
that it would have been hard to say which was which.

He had put up a hand between his eyes and the light, and
the very bones of it seemed transparent. So he sat, with a
steadfastly vacant gaze, pausing in his work. He never looked
at the figure before him, without first looking down on this side
of himself, then on that, as if he had lost the habit of associ-
ating place with sound; he never spoke, without first wander-
ing in this manner, and forgetting to speak.

Now that he had no work to hold, he laid the knuckles of
the right hand in the hollow of the left, and then the knuckles
of the left hand in the hollow of the right, and then passed a
hand across his bearded chin, and so on, in regular changes, with-
out a moment’s intermission. The task of recalling him from
the vacancy into which he always sank when he had spoken,
was like recalling some very weak person from a swoon, or

40 WRITING IN ENGLISH

endeavoring, in the hope of some disclosure, to stay the spirit
of a fast-dying man. -

A study of these, or of any well-constructed para-
graphs, will show that paragraphs, like whole compo-
sitions, must have not only well-selected details, but
also completeness, unity, and plan.

The planning of paragraphs we shall study later
(Chapter VIII); but that a paragraph should be
complete, and that it should be a unit, are points
already clear, because each paragraph has its own
subject or topic. The outline above given states the
five topics in the last selection. If, in this selection,
the writer had, in the second paragraph, which treats
of the old man’s voice, described in part his clothing,
this paragraph would have lacked the unity it now
has. Every sentence in that paragraph relates to the
voice which is being described. Or if, in the next
paragraph, any important or striking detail, neces-
sary to a clear and vivid picture of the old man’s ap-
pearance, had been omitted, that paragraph would
have lacked completeness. Unity and completeness, in
compositions and in paragraphs, seem perhaps very
simple and plain matters to be spoken of so much,
but careless and uninstructed writers so often fail to
think of these qualities and to secure them, that their
importance must be insisted upon frequently.

A carefully written piece of composition may always
be outlined, paragraph by paragraph, much as the
selection just given was outlined; and all school
compositions should be so outlined before being writ-

PARAGRAPHING 41

ten. The pupil by thus working out his plan or
order of topics secures himself against omission of im-
portant points, and against wandering from his topics
while writing (secures for his composition complete-
ness and unity). He will then write his composition
with the outline before him, and his paragraphing will
follow the topical outline. Whenever a writer finishes
what he has to say on one topic of the outline, he
should begin a new paragraph for the next topic, and
mark the beginning by indention.

Thoughtless or ignorant writers, forgetting that
each paragraph must have unity, often indent incor-
rectly. In the following selections, as printed here,
the indentions are irregular and misleading.

The Batile of the Blue Licks. (From The Choir Invisible,
by James Lane Allen, p. 67. Copyright, 1897, by The
Macmillan Company.)

Let the creek here be the Licking River. The Kentuckians,
some on foot and some on horse, but all tired and disordered
and hurrying along, had just reached the bank. Over on the
other side — some distance back -—— the Indians were hiding in
the woods and waiting. No one knew exactly where they were;
every one knew they counted from seven hundred to a thousand.
The Kentuckians were a hundred and eighty-two.

There was Boone with the famous Boonsborough men, the
very name of whom was a terror; there was Trigg with men
just as good from Harrodsburg; there was Todd, as good as
either, with men from Lexington. More than a fourth of the
whole were commissioned officers, and more fearless men never
faced an enemy. There was but one among them whose cour-
age had ever been doubted, and do you know what that man
did? After the Kentuckians had crossed the river to attack,

42 WRITING IN ENGLISH

been overpowered, forced back to the river again, and were
being shot down or cut down in the river like helpless cattle,
that man—his name was Benjamin Netherland —did this:
He was finely mounted. He had quickly recrossed the river
and had before him the open buffalo trace leading back home.
About twenty other men had crossed as quickly as he and ¥ were
urging their horses foward this road.

But Netherland, having reached the other bank, wheeled
his horse’s head toward the front of the battle, shouted and
rallied the others, and sitting there in full view and easy reach
of the Indian army across the narrow river, poured his volley
into the foremost of the pursuers, who were cutting down the
Kentuckians in the river. He covered their retreat.

He saved their lives. Yet when some twenty of the officers
had come out before the ranks to hold a council of war, and the
wisest and the oldest were urging caution or delay, one of them
— McGary — suddenly waved his hand in the air, spurred his
horse into the river, and shouted, “Let all who are not cow-
ards follow me! ”

They all followed; and then followed also the shame of
defeat, the awful massacre, the sorrow that lasts among us still,
and the loss to Kentucky of many a gallant young life that
had helped to shape her destiny in the nation.

(From The Man who Was, by Rudyard Kipling.)

The great beam-roofed mess room of the White Hussars was
a sight to be remembered.

All the mess plate was on the long table,—the same table
that had served up the bodies of five dead officers in a forgot-
ten fight long and long ago,—the dingy, battered standards
faced the door of entrance, clumps of winter roses lay between
the silver candlesticks, the portraits of eminent officers looked
down on their successors from between the heads of sambhur,
nilghai, maikhor, and, pride of all the mess, two grinning snow
leopards that had cost Basset-Holmer four months’ leave that
he might have spent in England instead of on the road to Thi-

PARAGRAPHING | 43

bet, and the daily risk of his life on ledge, snowslide, and
glassy grass slope. The servants, in spotless white muslin and
the crest of their regiments on the brow of their turbans,
waited behind their masters, who were clad in the scarlet and
gold of the White Hussars and the cream and silver of the
Lushkar Light Horse.

Dirkovitch’s dull green uniform was the only dark spot at
the board, but his big onyx eyes made up for it.

Exercise 17. Indention. — Write the words that should
be indented in the above selections, and be able to sive
reasons for the indentions as you think they should be.

Exercise 18. Paragraph topics.— Write the topics of
the paragraphs in the above selections, after the inden-
tion has been corrected.

‘There is usually in a paragraph one sentence which
states or suggests the topic of that paragraph. This
is called the topic sentence. It usually appears at or
near the beginning of the paragraph, but sometimes
at the end. The purpose of the topic sentence 1s to
tell clearly and simply what is the subject of the
paragraph. Thus it shows the unity of the paragraph
either by preparing the reader for what is to be said,
or by summing up what has been said.

In the following paragraphs the topics are printed
as titles, or headings, and the topic sentences are
printed in italics.

. A Room and its Occupant. (From Bleak House, by Charles
Dickens, Ch. X.)

The character of the room

The air of the room is almost bad enough to have extin-
guished the candle. Jt is a small room, nearly black with soot,

44 WRITING IN ENGLISIL

and grease, and dirt. In the rusty skeleton of a grate, pinched
at the middle as if Poverty had gripped it, a red coke fire
burns low. In the corner, by the chimney, stand a deal table
and a broken desk; a wilderness marked with a rain of ink.
In another corner a ragged old portmanteau, on one of the two
chairs, serves for cabinet or wardrobe: no larger one is needed,
for it collapses like the cheeks of a starved man. The floor
is bare; except that one old mat, trodden to shreds of rope
yarn, lies perishing upon the hearth. No curtain veils the
darkness of the night, but the discolored shutters are drawn
together; and through the two gaunt holes pierced in them,
famine might be staring in —the Banshee of the man upon the
bed.

The occupant of the room

For, on a low bed opposite the fire, a confusion of dirty
patchwork, lean-ribbed ticking, and coarse sacking, the visitor,
hesitating just within the doorway, sees a man. He lies there,
dressed in a shirt and trousers, with bare feet. He has a yel-
low look in the spectral darkness of.a candle that has guttered
down, until the whole length of its wick (still burning) had
doubled over and left a tower of winding sheet above it. His
hair was ragged, mingling with his whiskers and his beard —
the latter, ragged too, and grown like the scum and mist
around him, in neglect. Foul and filthy as the room is, foul
and filthy as the air is, it is not easy to perceive what fumes
those are which most oppress the senses in it; but through the
general sickliness and faintness, and the odor of stale tobacco,
there comes into the visitor’s mouth the bitter, vapid taste of
opium.

Burns in Edinburgh. (From Familiar Studies of Men and
Books, by Robert Louis Stevenson, p. 77.)

He was now, it must be remembered, twenty-seven years of
age; he had fought since his childhood an obstinate battle
against poor soil, bad seed, and inclement seasons, wading deep
in Ayrshire mosses, guiding the plow in the furrow, wielding

PARAGRAPHING 45

“the thresher’s weary flingin’ tree”; and his education, his
diet, and his pleasures had been those of a Scotch countryman.
Now he stepped forth suddenly among the polite and learned.
We can see him as he then was, in his boots and buckskins,
his blue coat and waistcoat striped with buff and blue, like a
farmer in his Sunday best; the heavy plowman’s figure firmly
planted on its burly legs; his face full of sense and shrewdness,
and with a somewhat melancholy air of thought, and his large
dark eye “literally glowing” as he spoke. “I never saw such
another eye in a human head,” says Walter Scott, “though I
have seen the most distinguished men of my time.”

Exercise 19. Topics and topic sentences. — Bring to
class, in writing, a statement of the “topics” in the
following paragraphs, also the “topic sentences” copied
out,

(From Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, by Robert Louis Steven-
son, p. 8.)

It chanced on one of these rambles that their way led them
down a by-street in the busy quarter of London. The street
was small and what is called quiet, but. it drove a thriving
trade on the week days. The inhabitants were all doing well,
it seemed, and all emulously hoping to do better still, and lay-
ing out the surplus of their gains in coquetry; so that the shop
fronts stood along the thoroughfare with an air of invitation,
like rows of smiling saleswomen. Even on Sunday, when it
veiled its more florid charms and lay comparatively empty of
passage, the street shone out in contrast to its dingy neighbor-
hood, like a fire in a forest; and with its freshly painted
shutters, well-polished brasses, and general cleanliness and
_ gayety of note, instantly caught and pleased the eye of the
passenger.

Two doors from one corner, on the left hand going east, the
line was broken by the entry of a court; and just at that point
@ certain sinister block of building thrust forward its gable

46 WRITING IN ENGLISH

on the street. It was two stories high; showed no window,
nothing but a door on the lower story and a blind forehead of
discolored wall on the upper, and bore in every feature the
marks of prolonged and sordid negligence. The door, which
was equipped with neither bell nor knocker, was blistered and
distained. Tramps slouched into the recess, and struck matches
on the panels; children kept shop upon the steps; the school-
boy had tried his knife on the moldings; and for close on a
generation no one had appeared to drive away these random
visitors or to repair their ravages.

(Hamlin Garland, in the Ladies’ Home Journal, August, 1899.
By permission.)

Koweechee was a most wonderful mountain. It sprang from
the lowlands of dark green hills, covered with pines as with a
robe, and it reached to a dazzling dome of snow two miles
above the valley where the Angry River roared. ‘Every line was
noble, sweeping, regal, and the summit burned under the noon
sunlight with unearthly radiance, and glowed and lightened
till it seemed as if the sky and snow were one. As the sun
sank to the west, Koweechee amplified and glorified like some
mighty orator stepping before a countless multitude of men.
He loomed over the tall pines and intervening hills with inex-
pressible grandeur —it would seem that nothing more remained
of majesty to express — and when the sun went down and the
stars came out behind his awful crown, then the lone traveler,
crouching close beside his camp fire, lifted his eyes timidly and
whispered, ‘ Lord, I adore!”

(From Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, by Robert Louis Stevenson,

p. 27.) :

It was by this about nine in the morning, and the first fog of .
the season. A great chocolate-colored pall lowered over heaven,
but the wind was continually changing and routing these em-
battled vapors; so that as the cab crawled from street to street
Mr. Utterson beheld a marvelous number of degrees and hues

PARAGRAPHING 47

of twilight; for here it would be dark, like the black end
of evening; and there would be a glow of rich, lurid brown,
like the light of some strange conflagration; and here, for a
moment, the fog would be quite broken up, and a haggard
shaft of daylight would glance in between the swirling wreaths.
The dismal quarter of Soho seen under these changing glimpses,
with its muddy ways, and slatternly passengers; and its
lamps, which had never been extinguished or had been kindled
afresh to combat this reinvasion of darkness, seemed like a
district of some city in a nightmare.

(From The Sketch Book, by Washington Irving.)

Suddenly the notes of the deep-laboring organ burst upon
the ear, falling with doubled and redoubled intensity, and
rolling, as it were, huge billows of sound. How well do their
volume and grandeur accord with this mighty building! With
what pomp do they swell through its vast vaults, and breathe
their awful harmony through these caves of death, and make
the silent sepulcher vocal! And now they rise in triumph and
acclamation, heaving higher and higher their accordant notes,
and piling sound on sound. And now they pause, and the soft
voices of the choir break out into sweet gushes of melody ;
they séar aloft, and warble along the roof, and seem to play
about these lofty vaults like the pure airs of heaven. Again
the pealing organ heaves its thrilling thunders, compressing
air into music, and rolling it forth upon the soul. What long-
drawn cadences! What solemn, sweeping concords! It grows
more and more dense and powerful —it fills the vast pile and
seems to jar the very walls — the ear is stunned — the senses
are overwhelmed. And now it is winding up in full jubilee —
it is rising from earth to heaven—the very soul seems rapt
away and floated upward on this swelling tide of harmony!

Exercise 20. Topics and topic sentences. — Write out the
topics and topic sentences of such others of the para-
graphs printed elsewhere as the teacher may select.

48 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Note to teachers. When completed, the following exer-
cises, aS well as many of the others, might be placed upon the
blackboard, read, and criticised during the recitation period.

Exercise 21. Arrangement of sentences in paragraphs.
EXAMPLE OF SENTENCES MISARRANGED : —

The two halves of a huge white mustache encircled his mouth,
like two parentheses. This man had on his head a piece of a
cocked hat, without a cockade; his dilapidated face had a stony
tint, that yellow tint which old monuments have in the sun-
light. He was dressed in an old uniform. They saw in front
of a vineyard gate a sort of soldier. Across one of the sleeves
stretched an old and worn strip of gold lace.

THE SAME SENTENCES PROPERLY ARRANGED : —
Topic — Description of an old soldier

They saw in front of a vineyard gate a sort of soldier. This
man had on his head a piece of acocked hat, without a cockade ;
his dilapidated face had a stony tint, that yellow tint which
old monuments have in the sunlight. The two halves of
a huge white mustache encircled his mouth, like two paren-
theses. He was dressed in an old uniform. Across one of the
sleeves stretched an old and worn strip of gold lace.

Study the following paragraphs of misarranged sen-
tences, discover the topic of each paragraph and. write
it as a heading ; then rewrite the sentences, arranged so
as to connect smoothly and naturally.

(a) He had a very large nose, slightly brass-colored: his
cheeks were very round and very red. His doublet was pro-
longed behind into something like what is now termed a
“‘ swallow tail,” but was much obscured by the swelling folds
of an enormous black, glossy-looking cloak. It was the most
extraordinary looking little gentleman Gluck had ever seen.
His mustaches curled twice- round like a corkscrew on each

PARAGRAPHING 49

side of his mouth, and his hair, of a curious mixed pepper-and-
salt color, descended far over his shoulders. He was about
four feet six in height, and wore a conical pointed cap of
nearly the same altitude, decorated with a black feather some
three feet long.

(6) They thought their thick mats would defend them
from a rifle ball as well as from a stone. Observing the
flashes of the guns, they naturally concluded that water would
counteract their effect. It was generally observed that at first
the Indians showed great resolution in facing our firearms;
but it was entirely owing to ignorance of their effect. Being
soon convinced of their error, yet still at a loss to understand
how so many among them were killed, they had recourse to
the following plan. But finding this last resource to fail them,
they soon dispersed, and left the beach entirely clear. They
therefore, very sagaciously, dipped their mats or armor in the
sea, just before coming on to face our soldiers.

. (c) Beneath the pulpit sat the deacons, and just before
them were the deaf seats and benches for the old and feeble
who owned no pews. In the left-hand gallery were the young
men and boys. There, too, sat the tithingman. A narrow aisle
crossed the broad one midway and joined the doors on either
side. The young women filled the wall pews of the right-hand
gallery. The main door opened on a broad aisle that led to
the high pulpit, with its green cushions and its funnel-shaped
sounding board. In the front gallery sat the singers. Spin-
sters and elderly women were given the front row of seats.
Close to the four walls was a row of pews separated by a con-
tinuous aisle from the body of the church. The little girls
had benches.

Exercise 22. Paragraph making. — Complete the para-
Sraphs suggested by the followings topic sentences : —

(a) To-day I saw an old woman selling newspapers .. .
(6) This old high-walled garden was a very interesting and
delightful place... .

WRIT. IN ENG. —4

50 WRITING IN) ENGLISH

(c) The tramp’s most notable peculiarity was his voice. . .

(d) In one of my recent walks I came upon the handsome
new building of ...

(e) The house has a very interesting attic, now used as a
storeroom ...

(f) To-day I saw a striking experiment performed in...

(g) The old mill is well worth a visit...

Note.—This exercise may be employed for oral or for written
composition or for both, as the teacher may direct.

Exercise 23. Paragraph writing. — Write from each of
the following suggestions a paragraph. Introduce a topic
sentence in each case.

(a) Our school yard. Shape, size — position of building in
it — parts of the yard — objects, trees, etc., in the yard — signs
it bears of its use — scenes it has witnessed.

(6) The public square (or, a square or little park). Situa-
tion, shape, size— plan or parts — objects in it — special
features.

(c) A horseless carriage. First impression — difference in
appearance from other vehicles — number of seats — where its
mechanism is—the steering gear, etc.—the brake — appear-
ance when at full speed.

(d) A domestic animal. Size — limbs — proportions — coat
— movements.

(e) Our church. Parts and plan — material, colors — strik-
ing features. .

(f) A balloon. Twenty feet high when filled — made of
silk — brown — hanging basket (for passengers) — ropes form
network over balloon — ropes hold up the basket.

(g) The cotton plant. Two or three feet high — white flow-
ers, which fall off — seed pod ripens, opens of itself — cotton
plucked with seeds in it —seeds must be removed by a
machine.

(hk) The whale. Great size (sometimes sixty feet or more in
length) — enormous mouth — tail flat, strong and heavy enough

PARAGRAPHING | 51

to break a small boat—blubber or fat beneath skin —in top
of head, nostril through which the whale “spouts.”

(t) “The Dewey Arch.” Erected at time of welcome to
Admiral Dewey — made of white staff, coated over a wooden
framework — as high as a four-story building — two wagons
may pass abreast through the arch—smaller side arches —
sculpture groups on faces and top.

Exercise 24. Original description. — 4fterreading again
Scott’s description of the mansion of Tully-Veolan (p. 32)
outline and then write a complete description of some
interesting building, paying special attention to para-
graphing and to the use of topic sentences. See that the
several paragraphs are smoothly connected.

Exercise 25. Description from picture.— Make an out-
line for a description of the Capitol (p.52). Write the
topic sentences for all the paragraphs you would write
from this outline. Then write the description.

THe CapPITOL AT WASHINGTON

52

CHAPTER IV
UNITY IN SENTENCES

WE have seen that each part or division of a com-
position (each paragraph) has its own part to perform
in the setting forth of the whole subject, and that it
is the business of a paragraph to tell only what
belongs to it. But 1t is important to bear in mind
that each sentence, as well as each of the paragraphs
and the whole composition, should have oneness or
unity. Fora sentence is the expression of a thought;
its one business 1s to express that thought, no more,
no less. So a sentence is not even a correct one,
unless it has this quality of unity. Every sentence,
no matter how long it 1s, no matter how many modi-
fying or subordinate ideas it has, no matter how many
codrdinate verbs it has, can and must have unity.
For so long as the less important or subordinate ideas
are kept in their place, being used merely as modi-
fiers, the sentence still has the unity that belongs
to its principal idea or statement. And as for com-
pound sentences, which state two or more ideas of
equal rank or importance, such sentences also have
properly a unity, because the parts or clauses must be
closely connected in thought, or they are simply parts

68

D4 WRITING IN ENGLISIL
of the same thought. If not, the sentence lacks unity,
and is a bad sentence.

To see how several codrdinate statements may have
unity, take the sentence: “ We shouted until we were
hoarse, and Tom hoisted a pole with a handkerchief
tied to it; my brother fired his revolver, and all of us
waved our arms wildly—but we could not attract
their attention.” Here the unity among the state-
ments is in the idea of what was done to attract the
desired attention.

To secure unity in sentences is extremely important,
yet not always easy. Careless and uninstructed writ-
ers and speakers are continually uttering sentences
that fail of unity. Nothing shows the poor writer
more than this. In fact, the greatest lesson we can
learn about good sentence making is to give every
one of our sentences unity. There is one sound rule
to follow: Have for each sentence one main thought,
and one only; express it, and then put the period.
If at first all your sentences are short and simple, no
matter. Have no ambition to write long sentences,
until you are sure you can write them as clear units.

There are three or four very common causes of
failure in sentence unity.

I. The “and” habit.

Careless writers and speakers seem almost to think
there is no other conjunction in the English language
than “and.” They string out idea after idea, using
“and” to pin the statements together, until chance

UNITY IN SENTENCES 5d

or weariness suggests coming to a stop. This is one
of the commonest and one of the very worst faults
in sentence making. It shows thoughtlessness and
slovenliness. In every sentence there should be a
principal thought or statement, and details that are
subordinate in importance should be expressed as
grammatically subordinate. Vote the following faulty
sentences ; —

1. There is a bird on that branch, and its nest is near by,
and there are three eggs in the nest.

2. Mr. Beecham came to town the other day and bought his
boy a bicycle and ordered it sent out to his farm, and it
was not sent for a week and Mr. Beecham was very angry
about it.

3. He was getting old, and he had to be out on the wharf a
good deal, and it wasn’t convenient to be locking up his office,
and he sent down to Machias for a school-teacher who was a
sort of poor relation of his.

4. And so John saw his native village again, and it was a
calm sunny day, and they descended into the green valley
where the town lay, and knocked at Mr. Ericsson’s door, but
the house was empty.

5. In many places the forest had been cut away, and this
left open tracts, and here the sweet mountain grass grew thick
and strong, and there were also harebells, foxgloves, and wild
pinks.

6. Hans was walking backward and forward on the moun-
tain side, and his eyes were fixed on the ground and he did not
see me approach.

7. It was in summer and the flowers were all in blossom,
and he was walking along after his sheep, and all at once he
saw a wonderful sky-blue flower, and he had never seen one of
the kind before in all his life.

56 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 26. Correction of abuse of ‘‘and.’’ — In each
of the above sentences, select what you regard as the
principal ideas, then cut each sentence up into two
or more sentences having “unity,” expanding the one
main thought when necessary, and using relative pro-
nouns or other connectives. (See the table of conjunctions
on page 85.) Some of the clauses made coordinate should
be put as modifiers (phrases or clauses) if they are really
subordinate in thought.

EXAMPLE OF CORRECTION (sentence 1): There is a bird on
that branch. Its nest, containing three eggs, is near by. Or,
On that branch there is a bird, whose nest is near by. The nest
has in it three tiny eggs, of a pale blue color.

II. Needless change of subject.

Example: After the fire had been lighted, the boys re-
treated to a shed which was some twenty feet from the house
of Mr. Foote, whose family was absent from home. (This
sentence employs four words as subjects: fire, boys, which,
and family.) Changed so as to reduce the number of subjects:
After lighting the fire the boys retreated to a shed near the
home of Mr. Foote’s absent family.

1. When my uncle reached home, the members of his family
were found to have gone out to a party.

2. Although the captain thought the fire was a serious one,
it was concluded by him that prompt action might save the
house.

3. He received us very pleasantly, and we were invited by
him to take seats in the shady courtyard.

4, The climate of Khartoum is very unhealthful, and we
learned that this unfortunate gentleman had long been a
resident of the place, and that he was suffering greatly from
fever.

5. There were indeed some persons, but the number of them
was small, by whom a kind of hobbling march on the broken

UNITY IN SENTENCES 57

arches of the bridge was continued, but they fell through, one
after another, as so long a walk had tired them.

Exercise 27. Avoiding change of subject. — Correct the
above sentences, by reducing the number of the subjects,
uf possible to only one, by placing some of the statements
as modifiers, or by changing verbs in the passive voice to
the active voice, or the reverse. (See the example of cor-
rection given.) Sometimes it may be well to make two
sentences tnstead of one.

III. Forgetting the verb.— One fault that is simply
bad grammar, and can appear only in very careless
writing, is to omit the verb. This occurs in rather
long and complex sentences, which have confused the
writer himself.

Exampues: 1. But Fletcher, who, after he had visited the
mill, thinking he had now to cover his tracks, walked some
distance in the brook.

2. But when we returned to the cottage at njghtfall with the
horse which had been stolen, and which was now, as we ap-
proached the house, so badly frightened that he broke away
and ran into the woods.

3. The long facade, consisting only of balconied windows
deeply recessed, standing erect on the summit of a con-
siderable hill, which gives a fine plunging movement to its
foundations.

4, But Frank, after he had tried again and again to break
open the shutter, which was nailed at three or four places, a and
found he could do nothing with it.

5. Looking very weak and weary, the boy, who had evidently
-walked a great distance, for his face was pale and his steps
were slow, coming timidly up the garden walk, and rapped at
the door.

58 | WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 28. Correction of sentences. — Rewrite the above
sentences so as to make them say something clearly and
srammatically. If you prefer, make two sentences to
take the place of any one.

EXAMPLE: The first above given may be corrected by omit-
ting “who.” If this is done, “ walked ” becomes the principal
verb, with the subject “ Fletcher.”

IV. Joining unconnected ideas.

Exampiers: 1. Soup is good to begin a meal with, and we
were all hungry as could be.

2. Goldsmith, who had the smallpox in his youth, became a
great writer before he was forty.

3. He came back on the night boat, looking much better
after his two weeks’ vacation.

4. He had the air of a nobleman; at the time I saw him he
had on a white waistcoat.

5. When the body was pulled into the boat it was found to
be clothed in the same blue suit Martin had recently bought,
but all efforts to restore life were in vain.

6. I next saw the town from the stern thwart of a little sail-
ing vessel ; behind the settlement was a great gash in the hill-
side where granite was quarried. ;

7. The name of the building was The Mentone, and it was
completely destroyed by the fire.

Exercise 29. Sentence-unity. — Correct or expand the
above sentences so as to secure unity; or write reasons for
thinking them faulty.

EXAMPLE (1 above): When one is tired and cold, a bow! of
soup is the best thing to begin a meal with. As for us, we
were so hungry that anything would have tasted good. Or
(make a connection between the two statements given): We

UNITY IN SENTENCES 59

were so hungry that the soup, poor as it was, seemed a delicious
and satisfying thing to begin the meal with.

Exercise 30. Criticism.— Look over one of your own
compositions, sentence by sentence, to make sure that each
sentence has “unity” and contains no misuse of “ and.”
Bring to class, copied out, the incorrect sentences, and
opposite them write correct or improved ones, thus: —

The incorrect sentences. ‘The same corrected or improved.

CHAPTER V
MORE ABOUT DESCRIPTION

In Chapter II we learned that all compositions
should show skillful selection and have completeness,
unity, and a well-thought-out plan. Descriptions,
therefore, should be full enough of well-chosen details
to be satisfactory, that is, there should be no omission
or oversight of important parts of the subject; and
descriptions should be free from sentences or para-
graphs that have no close or useful connection with
the subject. As for the requirement of plan, we saw
that in good descriptions the writer usually begins
with a glance at the subject of the description, men-
tioning that which first or most prominently strikes
the attention in it; and then that he uses the larger
part or body of the description to set forth the details
in full, arranged in some definite order, and grouped
under certain divisions or heads.

In this chapter we are to consider a few ways of
improving our descriptions, and we shall continue
also our study of paragraphing.

I. Point of view. —In beginning a description, it
is usually necessary, for the sake of clearness, to
select a point from which to view the object or scene.

60

MORE ABOUT DESCRIPTION 61

If your subject is a house, and your point of view is
outside of it, you are not expected to describe any of
the interior, except, perhaps, what you see from that
outside position. Neither should you describe all
the sides of the house, for all are not to be seen from
one point of view. Sometimes, however, the observer
may change his point of view during the description.
He may, for instance, walk entirely round the house.
Whenever the point of view is movable, the reader
should be distinctly told so. Whether it is well to
have a moving point of view, depends upon the
nature of the subject. Of course, in describing the
interior of a house of several rooms, the point of view
must change from room to room. (See Dickens’s
description of Bleak House, quoted in Chapter IT.)
This is really a case, however, of several descriptions —
in one.

A very important result of having a certain point
of view is that the scale of the description depends
upon the distance of the point of view. If a writer
is describing a mountain as seen from a distance of
several miles, of course he will see none of the details
that engage the attention of a person climbing the
same mountain. The latter would write of the rocks,
the fallen trunks, the brushwood, the flowers, the
dead leaves, and perhaps the occasional outlook from
the slopes over the broad valleys. The distant
observer would see the great outlines of the moun-
tain, the play of light and shade, the overhanging
clouds.

62 WRITING IN ENGLISH

All that can be said is, that a writer should decide
carefully upon his point of view, just as a painter
must select the place for his stool and canvas. Not
to have clearly in mind a point of view, whether
close or distant, oblique from the object or directly in
front, above or below it, outside of it or inside, makes
danger of vagueness and inaccuracy in the description.

Exercise 31. Points of view. — What are the points of
view tn Irving’s description of an inn kitchen, page 21,
Mr. Kipling’s description of Holden’s house, page 22,
Stevenson’s description of Mr. Hyde, page 28, Miss Rep-
plier’s description of a street pageant, page 30, Dickens’s
description of the shoemaker, page 38, of a room and its
occupant, page 43, Mr. Garland’s description of Mount
_ Koweechee, page 46, Stevenson’s description of a London
fog, page 46?

Exercise 32. Points of view. — (a) What were the
points of view in three of the descriptions you have writ-
ten? (b) What point of view woutd you adopt in writing
a description of your room at home; of a house on fire;
of a florist’s window ; of a snowstorm ; of a race?

II. Use of comparison. — Sometimes in describ-
ing a complex or extensive subject or scene, it is
very useful to compare it to something simple and
familiar, for this helps our readers to understand all
that we say. Thus in describing the battlefield of
Waterloo, Victor Hugo asks his readers to imagine a
great A. Then he goes on to explain that the lines
are roads, and that the three-cornered space is occu-
pied by a certain hill, and so on. This comparison

MORE ABOUT DESCRIPTION 63

of the place with an A makes the entire description
much clearer and simpler than it might have been.
In the same way Mr. Creasy, the author of The
Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World, makes clear
his description of the battlefield of Marathon by
comparing it to a crescent (the shape of the young
moon). Sir Walter Scott, in describing the hall of
Cedric the Saxon (in Ivanhoe, Ch. III), explains the
arrangement of the tables by saying they formed a
large T; the cross part, on a slightly raised platform,
being the table at which sat Cedric and his immediate
family.

The world is full of similarities, and if a writer
chooses a comparison that will really explain and
make distinct the thing or scene he is describing he
will add much to his description. It will usually be
wise for the writer of a description to pause and ask
himself: “What is this hke? What can I compare
my subject to?”

Note the comparisons in the following description
of an army hospital : ;

(From The Wound Dresser, by Walt Whitman, p. 35. By per-
mission.) |

As a specimen of almost any one of these hospitals, fancy
to yourself a space of three to twenty acres of ground, on which
are grouped ten or twelve very large wooden barracks, with,
perhaps, a dozen or twenty, and sometimes more than that
number, of small buildings, capable all together of accommo-
dating from five hundred to a thousand or fifteen hundred
persons. Sometimes these large wooden barracks, or wards,
each of them, perhaps, from a hundred to a hundred and fifty

64 WRITING IN ENGLISH

feet long, are arranged in a straight row, evenly fronting the
street; others are planned so as to form an immense V; and
others again arranged around a hollow square. They make
all together a huge cluster.

III. Statement of effects. — One of the strongest
ways of describing anything is by telling its effect
upon yourself or upon others. Instead of trying to
describe the beauty of Helen, Homer tells us of the
admiration and wonder the sight of her caused in
the old men at the gate of Troy. So, in the descrip-
tion of Mr. Hyde, quoted in Chapter IT of this book,
the author makes us realize how horrible was the
man’s appearance by telling how the very sight of
his deformity made the observer feel.

Always try, in describing anything, to make your
reader feel as you do. Bring yourself into your
descriptions, not so much, perhaps, by telling as by
suggesting what you think and feel in the presence
of your subject, and thus causing your reader to have
those thoughts and feelings too. This gives life to_
what you write. If you are telling about a wretched
abandoned old house, your thoughts and feelings
would not be the same as if you were in a great
sunny field filled with flowers. Make the reader
share your own impressions. In this way you make
the description distinctly your own. Do not put
down just bare cold facts, but write with love of
your subject, write feelingly and personally, so that if
anybody reads what you write he may think and
feel as you did.

MORE ABOUT DESCRIPTION B05

IV. Giving of sense-impressions. — One particular
form of giving your own feelings is to mention or
indicate how the subject impresses your five senses.
Of course, in most descriptions we are obliged to
speak principally of sight-impressions; but very
often there are odors and sounds to be mentioned
and described, and occasionally there are impressions
of touch and taste. It is extremely important to
suggest sense-impressions, for, the more you mention,
the more vivid and complete is the reader’s idea of -
the thing or scene described.

First let us think how many different impressions
we get only or chiefly through sight. When we
look at an object we see: —

1. Its size,

2. Its shape and parts and position,

3. Its apparent texture or character,

4. Its movements, if any,

5. Its colors, and effects of light and shadow.

All these are valuable parts. of the description of
any visible object or scene. The details regarding
colors may be particularly delightful, and should
always be given.

Add to the five sight-impressions these others : —

6. Impressions of one’s own bodily motions,
7. Of sounds,
8. Of touch, of pressure and weight, and of
temperature,
9. Of odors,
10. Of taste,

WRIT, IN ENG, —§

66 WRITING IN ENGLISII

and we have a wide range of impressions, whether
agreeable or disagreeable, which it 1s the describer’s
business to convey or suggest, and which, when well
communicated, impart to a description a large element
of its merit and of its pleasure-giving qualities.

Exercise 33. Sense-impressions. — In the following de-
scriptions, note (in writing) the sorts of impressions con-
veyed by the words or phrases in ttalics : —

Description of a Landscape in France. (From Travels with a
Donkey, by Robert Louis Stevenson, p. 48.)

Pradelles stands on a hillside, high above the Allier, sur-
rounded by rich meadows. They were cutting aftermath on all
sides, which gave the neighborhood, this gusty autumn morning,
an untimely smell of hay. On the opposite bank of the Allier
the land kept mounting for miles to the horizon; a tanned and
sallow autumn landscape, with black blots of fir wood and white
roads wandering through the hills. Over all this the clouds
shed a uniform and purplish shadow . . . throwing into
still higher relief the twisted ribbons of the highway. It wasa
cheerless prospect, but one stimulating to a traveler.

Description of Amy Falconer. (From The Choir Invisible,
by James Lane Allen, p. 3. Copyright, 1897, by The
Macmillan Company.)

Her pink calico dress, newly starched and ironed, had looked
so pretty to her when she had started from home, that she had
not been able to bear the thought of wearing over it this lovely
afternoon her faded, much-stained riding-skirt; and it was so
short that it showed, resting against the saddle-skirt, her little
feet loosely fitted into new bronze morocco shoes. On her
hands she had drawn white half-hand mittens of home-knit ; and
on her head she wore an enormous white scoop bonnet, lined
with pink, and tied under her chin in a huge white muslin bow.

MORE ABOUT DESCRIPTION 67

Her face, hidden away under the pink-and-white shadow,
showed such tints of pearl and rose that it seemed carved from
the inner surface of a seashell. Her eyes were gray, almond-
shaped, rather wide apart, with an expression changeful and
playful, but withal rather shrewd and hard; her light brown
hair, as jine as unspun silk, was parted over her brow and
drawn simply back behind her ears; and the lips of her little
mouth curved against each other, fresh, velvetlike, smiling.

On she rode down the avenue of the primeval woods; and
Nature seemed arranged to salute her as some imperial pres-
ence; with the waving of a hundred green boughs above and
on each side; with a hundred floating odors ; with the flash and
rush of bright wings; with the swift play of nimble forms up
and down the boles of trees; and all the sweet confusion of
innumerable melodies.

Willowby Heath. (From Green Pastures and Piccadilly, by
William Black, Ch. II.)

This was Willowby Heath —a vast stretch of sandy ground
covered by dark heather mostly, but showing here and there
brilliant masses of gorse and broom, and here and there a small
larch tree not over four feet in height, but gleaming with a
glimmer of green over the dark common. A couple of miles
away, on a knoll, stood a windmill, its great arms motionless.
Beyond that again the heath darkened as it rose to the hovri-
zon, and ended in a black line of firs.

Exercise 34. Comparisons in descriptions. — What com-
parisons are stated or suggested in the three descriptions
just quoted? Write out a list, containing at least five.

Exercise 35. Description from picture. — (a) Make an
outline for.a description of the scene represented tn the
picture on page 68. (6b) Write the description, convey-
in§ a sense of reality, as far as you can, by suggesting
comparisons and sense-impressions.

ONIMVWAVET 89

MORE ABOUT DESCRIPTION 69

Exercise 36. Sense-impressions. — Vote, in a table or
list, the words in the following descriptions that men-
tion or suggest sense-impressions, and opposite each word
write the sort of sense-impression conveyed.

A Youthful Pioneer. (From The Choir Invisible, by James
Lane Allen, p. 14. Copyright, 1897, by The Macmillan
Company.)

One among them, larger and handsomer than the others, had
pleased his fancy by donning more nearly the Indian dress.
His breechclout was of dappled fawn skin; his long thigh-
boots of thin deerhide were open at the hips, leaving exposed
the clear whiteness of his flesh; below the knees they were
ornamented by a scarlet fringe tipped with the hoofs of fawns
and the spurs of wild turkey; and in his cap he wore the in-
tertwined wings of the hawk and the scarlet tanager.

A Scene in Southern California. (From A Summer in a Cajion,
by Kate Douglas Wiggin, p. 20. Houghton, Mifflin, and
-Company, by permission.)

The town is yet asleep, and in truth it is never apt to be
fairly wide awake. The air is soft and balmy; the lovely Pacific,
a quivering, sparkling sheet of blue and gray and green flecked
with white foam, stretches far out until it is lost in the rosy
sky; and the mountains, all purple and pink and faint crimson
and gray, stand like sentinels along the shore. The scent of
the roses, violets, and mignonette mingled with the cloying fra-
grance of the datura is heavy in the still air. The bending,
willowy pepper trees show myriad bunches of yellow blossoms,
crimson seed berries, and fresh green leaves, whose surface, not
rain-washed for months, is as full of color as ever. The
palm trees rise without a branch, tall, slender, and graceful,
from the warmly generous earth, and spread at last, as if tired
of their straightness, into beautiful crowns of fans, which sway
toward each other with every breath of air. Innumerable but-
terflies and humming birds, in the hot, dazzling sunshine of

70 WRITING IN ENGLISH

noonday, will be hovering over the beds of sweet purple helio-
trope and finding their way into the hearts of the passion
Howers, but as yet not the faintest whir of wings can be heard.
Looking eastward or westward, you see either brown foothills,
or, a little later on, emerald slopes whose vines hang heavy
with the half-ripened grapes.

The Circus Girl. (From Day Dreams, by Kenneth Gra-
hame, p. 105.)

I found myself seated actually in the circus at last, and took
in the first sniff of that intoxicating circus smell that will stay
by me while this clay endures. The place was beset by a hum
and a glitter and a mist; suspense brooded large o’er the
blank, mysterious arena. Strung up to the highest pitch of
expectation, we knew not from what quarter, in what divine
shape, the first surprise would come.

A thud of unseen hoofs first set us a-quiver; then a crash of
cymbals, a jangle of bells, a hoarse applauding roar, and
Coralie was in the midst of us, whirling past ’twixt earth and
sky, now erect, flushed, radiant, now crouched to the flowing
mane; swung and tossed and molded by the maddening
dance music of the band. The mighty whip of the count in
the frock coat marked time with pistol shots; his war cry,
whooping clear above the music, fired the blood with a passion
for splendid deeds, as Coralie, laughing, exultant, crashed
through the paper hoops. We gripped the red cloth in front
of us, and our souls sped round and round with Coralie, leaping
with her, prone with her, swung by mane or tail with her.
It was not only the ravishment of her delirious feats, nor her
cream-colored horse of fairy breed, long-tailed, roe-footed, an
enchanted prince surely, if ever there was one! It was her
more than mortal beauty that held us spellbound. What
princess had arms so dazzlingly white, or went delicately
clothed in such pink and spangles ?

But summers sicken, flowers fail and die, all beauty but
rides round the ring and out at the portal; even so Coralie

MORE ABOUT DESCRIPTION 71

passed in her turn, poised sideways, panting, on her steed;
lightly swayed as a tulip bloom, bowing on this side and on
that as she disappeared.

Near Whales at Night. (From Two Years Before the Mast,
by R. H. Dana, Jr., p. 30.)

It was on the night that we passed between the Falkland
Islands and Staten Land. We had the watch from twelve to
four, and, coming upon deck, found the little brig lying perfectly
still, inclosed in a thick fog, and the sea as smooth as though
oil had been poured upon it; yet now and then a long, low
swell rolling under its surface, slightly lifting the vessel, but
without breaking the glassy smoothness of the water. We
were surrounded far and near by shoals of sluggish whales and
grampuses, which the fog prevented our seeing, rising slowly
to the surface, or perhaps lying out at length, heaving out
those lazy, deep, and long-drawn breathings which give such
an impression of supineness and strength. Some of the
watch were asleep, and the others were quiet, so that there was
nothing to break the illusion, and I stood leaning over the bul-
warks, listening to the slow breathings of the mighty crea-
tures, —now one breaking the water just alongside, whose
black body I almost fancied that I could see through the fog;
and again another, which I could just hear in the distance, —
until the low and regular swell seemed like the heaving of the
ocean’s mighty bosom to the sound of its own heavy and long-
drawn respirations.

A Drive in Missouri. (From Green Pastures and Piccadilly, by
William Black, Ch. XLIV.)

That drive up the bed of the Missouri we shall not soon for-
get. There was no made road at all, but only a worn track
through the dense vegetation of this swampy plain, while ever
and anon this track was barred across by ravines of rich, deep,
black, succulent mud. It was no unusual thing for us to see
first one horse and then its companion almost disappear into 4

T2 WRITING IN ENGLISH

hole, we looking down on them; then there would be a fierce
struggle, a plunge on our part, and then we were looking up
at the horses, pawing the bank above us. How the springs
held out we could not understand. But occasionally, to avoid
these ruts, we made long detours through the adjacent prairie
land lying over the bluffs; and certainly this was much pleas-
anter. We went through a wilderness of flowers, and the scent
of the trampled Mayweed filled all the air around us. ... The
sunflowers were higher than our animals’ heads; they could
not possibly see where they were going; but, all the same,
they slowly ploughed their way through the forest of crackling
stems. ... The air was thick with insect life, and vast clouds
of reedbirds rose, as we passed, from the sunflowers. There
was a red fire all over the west as we finally drove into the
valley of the Decatur.

Rubens’s Painting, Samson and Delilah. (From George Eliot’s
Letters, in her Life, by J. W. Cross.) _

[I was] delighted afresh in the picture of “ Samson and Deli-
lah,” both for the painting and the character of the figures.
Delilah, a magnificent blonde, seated in a chair, with a trans-
parent white garment slightly covering her body, and a rich
red piece of drapery round her legs, leans forward, with one
hand resting on her thigh, the other, holding the cunning
shears, resting on the chair— a posture which shows to perfec-
tion the full, round, living arms. She turns her head around
to look with sly triumph at Samson —a tawny giant, his legs
caught in the red drapery, shorn of his long locks, furious with
the consciousness that the Philistines are upon him, and that
this time he cannot shake them off. Above the group of
malicious faces and grappling arms a hand holds a flaming
torch. Behind Delilah, and grasping her arm, leans forward
an old woman, with hard features full of exultation.

Exercise 37. Imitation of model.—(a) Write, in imita-
tion of one of the descriptions given in Exercises 33 and

MORE ABOUT DESCRIPTION 73

36, a description of some place in the country that you
remember very well, or of some scene in a park, or of a
garden. (b) Give orally an imitation of another of the
descriptions Sgiven in the same exercises.

Exercise 38. Topics and topic sentences. — Write the
topics and the topic sentences of the paragraphs quoted
in Exercises 33 and 36.

Exercise 39. Outlining of paragraphs. — Outline any
three of the paragraphs in Exercise 36.

Exercise 40. Paragraphs from summaries. — (a) From
the following suggestions write descriptive paragraphs,
introducing sense-impressions. (See descriptions of simi-
lar subjects quoted previously.) (6) Reproduce orally one
of your own descriptions.

(a) The Pasha’s son. Age about eleven — tall for his age
(form) — face, eyes (colors) — smile (impression made) — he
made a graceful salutation, just as (comparison) — voice (im-
pression made) — manners.

(6) The home of a Russian serf. Supper ready (odors) —
in one corner a picture of Mary and Jesus, the figures covered
with gilt (color) — except the hands —these blackened by smoke
of a tiny lamp (colors) — fire burning (light and shadows) —
boiled potatoes steaming in a big wooden bowl — salt, plate of
melted fat, loaf of black bread —no plates, knives, or forks —
rough wooden spoons (form) —all ate from the bowl (move-
ment; comparison) —for drink, a thin and rather sour beer
(taste; invent a comparison).

(c) The bay on a windy day. The water (color), furrowed
(comparison) — the water flecked with foam (color, comparison)
— bare, empty of vessels —all the sails now huddled at the
wharves, like (comparison) —the wind from off the water (effect
on sense of feeling; odor).

(d) At night among the pines. I wakened thirsty —drank
a tin of cold water (feeling and effect) —stars clear (colors,

14 WRITING IN ENGLISH

comparison) — Milky Way (color, form)—all around me the
firpoints (color) stood upright and. stock still— my donkey
munching at the grass the only sound except that of the brook
(describe this sound) — the colors in the sky.

Exercise 41. Original description. — (a) Prepare an out-
line for a complete original description of a landscape,
a street scene, a picture, an audience, or a classroom.

(6) Write the description, introducing all the direct
sense-LMpresstons you can.

CHAPTER VI
SENTENCE-FORMS

WHILE it is of the first importance in our writing
that we shall have something to say, and shall know
how to arrange and present our paragraphs and their
contents, we should at no time lose sight of the great
need all writers have for skill in the formation of
sentences. In this chapter are to be studied the parts
or elements of sentences, the kinds of sentences, and
some of the transformations of which sentences are
capable. Now we must, through the patient practice
afforded by many exercisés, acquire skill in thus
changing and manipulating sentences. Only in this
way may we be able to make and select the sentence-
form that is best suited to each case. Necessarily a
good deal of what follows is in the nature of a review
and application of English grammar.

I. Kinds of elements. —In the study of grammar’
we learn that a sentence consists of two principal
parts, the subject (the word or words denoting that
about which something is said), and the predicate
(expressing what is said of the thing denoted by the
subject). The subject may be a word, a phrase, or a
clause; and it may be modified by a word, a phrase,

1 See Maxwell’s Advanced Lessons in English Grammar, Ch. V, p. 39.
75

. 16 WRITING IN ENGLISII

or a clause. The verb in the predicate may also be
modified by one or more words, phrases, or clauses.
(Remember that a clause always has in it a subject
and a predicate.)

A noun (or a noun expression), whether it be a
subject, an object, a predicate noun (sometimes called
attribute), or the noun part of a prepositional phrase,
may be modified by an adjective element. (For
example, the word “element”’ in the last sentence
belongs with the preposition “ by,” and 1s modified by
“an” and “‘adjective.’’) A verb may be modified
by one or more adverbial elements, and, if transitive,
may have one or more olject elements. So we may
form this table of elements : —

I. Principal elements
a. Subject
1. Word (a noun or a pronoun)
2. Phrase (usually an infinitive verb)
3. Clause

b. Predicate, always a verb, with or without com-
plements or modifiers

II. Subordinate elements

a. Predice‘e complement or attribute (of intran-
sitive verb)
1. Word
2. Phrase (an infinitive verb, or else a prepo-
sition with its object)
3. Clause

~ SENTENCE-FORMS 77

b. Object complement (object of transitive verb)
1. Word
2. Phrase (usually an infinitive verb)
3. Clause

c. Adjective element

1. Word (including adjectives, nouns in appo-
sition, nouns or pronouns in the possess-
Ive case)

2. Phrase (either an infinitive verb, or a prep-
osition with its object)

3. Clause (always introduced by a relative pro-
noun, or by a word like where, wherein,
etc., used as the equivalent of a preposi-
tion and a relative pronoun)

d. Adverbial element
1. Word
2. Phrase (infinitive or prepositional)
3. Clause (introduced by one of the subordi-
nating conjunctions; see page 85)

Exercise 42. Kinds of elements. — In the above table
there are five Sroups, each group containing three sub-
divisions. There are, therefore, fifteen forms of elements
to be known (not including the verb, which is found in
all sentences). Write, in order, fifteen sentences, illus-
trating the fifteen forms of elements enumerated in the
table. Underline in each sentence the element you intend
as the example.

Exercise 43. Transformation of elements. — In the follow-
ing sentences change the italicized words to phrases,
and the italicized phrases to words. In each case, after

78 WRITING IN ENGLISH

making the transformation, tell what kind of element
you have made, and tell what it modifies (unless it ts @
principal element,—a subject).

EXAMPLES: (a) That maple CHaneeEp: That golden-leaved
tree with the golden leaves may maple tree may be seen afar.
be seen from a great distance.

(6) Seeing is believing. To see is to believe.

(c) He isa man of stern severity. He is a stern and severe man.

1. The laws of nature are just. 2. Windsor Castle has long
been a residence of kings and queens. 3. He has done his work
with thoroughness. 4. “ Happiness” is a stronger word than
“felicity.” 5. The offer is certainly to be accepted. 6. Writing
about a man’s life is not an easy form of literature. 7. Playing
quoits is a game of small merit. 8. His object was to secure
that money. 9. It is of no use to send him away. 10. What
is of more bitterness than seeing one’s children ungrateful ?

II. Kinds of sentences. — We further learn in the
study of grammar that sentences are simple, com-
pound, or complex. A simple sentence is a sentence
containing one subject and one predicate (but either
the subject or the predicate, or both, may be composed
of two or more parts of equal importance, as, two
noun subjects or two verbs; there is then said to be
a “compound subject’ or a “compound predicate ’’).
A simple sentence may be lengthened by the addi-
tion of modifiers; but so long as these modifiers are
words or phrases, and not clauses, the sentences are
still simple sentences.

Exercise 44. Formation of simple sentences. — J? we
take apart a simple sentence like this:—

SENTENCE-FORMS 19

After a refreshing walk of about two miles we reached the
corner of a high stone wall running parallel with the road,

we Set separate elements like these: —

We had a refreshing walk. It was a walk of about two
miles. Then we reached the corner of a wall. It was a high
wall. It was of stone. It ran parallel with the road.

Each of the followin§ groups of separate elements you
are to combine into a good simple sentence. Be sure that
you wse in each sentence but one subject-element and one
verb-element (though the subject or the predicate may be
compound).

Note. — Other exercises of this sort are found in Maxwell’s
Advanced Lessons in English Grammar, p. 45.

1. He could scarcely sit still in the house. This was dur-
ing the first few days. He could scarcely take part in the
studies. Mr. Lorne had chosen these studies for him.

2. It was a great triumph for his mother. It was especially
a triumph for his sister. His sister was now a bright, bloom-
ing girl. She was sixteen years old.

3. He had a restless look. He had a rather unhappy look.
This was very different from the bright eyes and the pleasant
countenance of Otto. Otto was his best friend.

4, Old Gregor and his grandson were returning home. They
were coming through the forest. They had bundles of wood.
The old man was stooping low under the weight of the heavy
sticks.

5. He set out in a direction opposite from home. He was
armed with a club. He expected to find another bear.

A complex sentence is one that contains one or more
dependent or subordinate clauses, but only one princi-
pal clause. Any sentence that contains two or more

80 WRITING IN ENGLISH

principal clauses (no matter how many subordinate
clauses) is a compound sentence.

Exercise 45. Formation of easy complex sentences. —
Form complex sentences from the following sets of simple
sentences, by using suitable connectives and making
necessary contractions.

EXxAMPLEs: (a) I saw a boy start up and run after his cattle.
The last one of the cattle was entering the forest.

I saw a boy start up and run after his cattle, the last one of
which was entering the forest.

(6) The boy was singing. I came out of the thicket.

As I came out of the thicket, the boy was singing; or,

While the boy was singing, I came out of the thicket.

Note. — Similar exercises are to be found in Maxwell’s Ad-
vanced Lessons in English Grammar, p. 48.

1. I seated myself in theshade. I wished to enjoy the view.

2. The first object attracting my attention was Otto. He
was knitting beside his herd of cows. This was his usual
occupation.

3. We stepped back a few paces. We sat down on the
ground. We desired to bring the box between us and the blue
sky. (Purpose.)

4, Other beescome. They quarrel with the first bees. (Use
a time clause.)

5. It was a hemlock tree. It stood in a niche in a wall of
rocks. These were hoary and moss-covered. They were thirty
feet high.

Exercise 46. Formation of compound sentences. — Form
compound sentences from the following sets of simple
sentences, and tell which clauses are principal and which
subordinate.

ExaMPLe: To*the southwest the soil is a tough clay. To
the northeast the gardens consist of a warm crumbling mold,
very fertile.

. SENTENCE-FORMS 81

_ To the southwest the soil is a tough clay, while to the north-
east the gardens consist of a warm crumbling mold, very fertile.

Note. — Similar exercises are to be found in Maxwell’s _Ad-
vanced Lessons in English Grammar, p. 50.

1. Our wells, at an average, run to about sixty-three feet.
When sunk to that depth they seldom fail.

2. The north wind is blowing hard. It must be a cold day.

3. It was the first of May. Snow was falling.

4. His name was James. It may have been John.

5. He lay back in the steamer chair in his hall room. The
shadows began to lengthen a little. The long day drew nearer
to its end. .

6. He roused himself. The hand organs had both gone
away. The child next door had ceased her piano practicing.

7. With an effort he raised himself. He saw a line of car-
riages on the other side of the street. They were moving
slowly toward the corner. |

8. He was thinking about himself. He wae thinking about
his hopes. They had been as bright as the sunshine of spring.
He was pondering over his bitter disappointment.

9. He saw the long shafts of level sunshine. They entered
his window. He took heart again. He recalled the great
things accomplished by one man.

10. The dogs were barking. Cattle bells were jangling in
the wooded pastures. The youth passed farmhouses. Lights
in the kitchen windows showed that the women were astir
about breakfast. He heard the sounds of voices and curry-
combs at the barn. The men were at their daily chores.

Most compound sentences may be changed into
complex sentences, and many complex sentences may
be changed into compound. But these changes make
some difference in the meaning, and therefore one or
the other sentence in every case is the better. Usually
the complex sentence is better than the compound,

WRIT. IN ENG.—6

82 WRITING IN ENGLISH

because there is generally but one principal idea or
statement in a sentence, and the other statements
should be put in the form of subordinate clauses,
participial modifiers, phrases, adjectives, or adverbs.
No exercises will be given in the transformation of
complex sentences into compound, but the opposite
transformation it is very important to understand.

Exercise 47. Transformation of compound sentences
into complex. — Put all but one of the clauses in each
of the following sentences into the form of subordinate
clauses, so as to inake complex sentences. Be very care-
ful to keep for the principal clause the statement which
- you think is the most important in the sentence.

EXAMPLES: (a) He did wrong, and his father punished him.

Changed: His father punished him because he had done
wrong; or, As he had done wrong, his father punished him.

(b) You have only twenty marbles, and I have five more
than you.

Changed: If you have only twenty marbles, I have five
more than you.

1, The mercury dropped ‘suddenly, and I knew a storm was
coming.

2. The horse felt the fly and shook himself at once.

3. He spoke always in a whisper, and this lent him an air
of mystery.

4. I needed all the money I could save, and I came most
of the way by canal boat.

5. He’ll teach him,” said Mr. Lightly, and he laughed and
coughed.

6. They might open these letters, and I might be kept here
many years longer.

7. I promised to deliver both letters with my own hands,
and the man parted from me in more cheerful spirits.

SENTENCE-FORMS 838

8. You sign this paper, or I sue you for the money.

9. I found the Pasha’s house, but I was not admitted, be-
cause the Egyptian women are not allowed to receive the visits
of strangers.

10. I bring you this letter, and I promised your father I
would deliver it into your own hands.

Exercise 48. Transformation into simple sentences. —
(a) Change the above compound sentences, or the com-
plex sentences into which you transform them, into
simple sentences. Observe that an adjective or adverbial
clause may in many instances be changed into a phrase
or even into a word element. Since this change secures
brevity and simplicity, it is often a good one to make.
But the more expanded form may sometimes be easier
to read and understand.

ExamMptes of this kind of change: —

a. The valleys which produce grass enough for the cattle
are generally scattered widely apart.

Changed to a simple sentence: The valleys producing grass
enough for the cattle are generally scattered widely apart.

b. In the front of the house, where the sun shone warmest,
he had laid out a little garden.

In front of the house, in the place warmed most by the sun,
he had laid out a little garden.

c. The farmer determined that he would not sell his corn.

The farmer determined not to sell his corn.

d. The storm did damage that could not be repaired.

The storm did irreparable damage.

(6) Change in similar ways the following to simple |
sentences : —

1. He was a man whose character was above reproach.

2. As nature had done so much for Athens, it is fortunate
that art did so much more.

84 WRITING IN ENGLISH

3. One day as I stood on a street corner in a great city, I
saw above the trucks and the traffic a line of bees that were
carrying off sweets from some grocery.

4. He leapt from bed as the sun was rising. |

5. After there had been some days of impatient expec-
tation, the king landed at Margate, which was then an in-
portant port.

6. It was a book that one could read with enjoyment.

7. When he saw the woman open the door, he dodged back
again behind the fence.

8. However differently the thirteen colonies may have been
founded or governed, they were all alike in some respects that
were very important.

9. The tumult was such that it could not be described.

10. Others were governed by the original proprietors or by
those who represented them.

11. Find single words for the following expressions: In a
high degree, it is possible that, with earnestness, for that
reason, a great amount of (unhappiness), through his whole
life.

One of the most serious troubles writers have in
making sentences is due to a failure to see what is
the principal idea, of which the others must be modt-
fiers. Nearly always when several sentences are
connected by “ and,’ one of the statements should
clearly be made the principal one. The others may
be subordinated to it by a proper use of conjunctions.

Learn to use complex sentences instead of compound.

Now a skillful use of complex sentences is impos-
sible without a knowledge of the kinds and meanings
of the English conjunctions.

SENTENCE-FORMS 85

Conjunctions may be classified as follows: *—
I. Coérdinating conjunctions

a. Copulative or additive—and, also, moreover,
likewise, both . . . and,notonly . . . but
also

6. Adversative — but, yet, still, however, while,
whereas, though, and yet, though . . . yet

ce. Disjunctive —or, else, or else, otherwise, either
. . or, neither ... nor

d. Illative or consequential — therefore, hence,
so, and so, so that, consequently, then, so
then, wherefore, accordingly

II. Subordinating conjunctions

e. Introductory — that, whether, if

f. Causal — because, since, as, for, inasmuch as,
whereas

g. Purposive — that, in order that, so that, lest

h. Concessive — though, although, even if, inas-
much as, notwithstanding

t. Conditional —if, provided, supposing that, un-
less

j. Adverbial— when, how, where, as, why,
whither, as if, while

k. Comparative — than, as

1Compare Maxwell’s Advanced Lessons in English Grammar, pp. 202,
203.

86 WRITING IN ENGLISH

To these, for the present purpose, may be added a
class of words that serve both as pronouns and as
connectives : —

1. Relative pronouns— which, who, that, as,
what; whichever, whoso, etc. Certain
conjunctive adverbs, as where, wherein,
whereto, where-at, -on, -upon, -by, etc., are
frequently used as equivalent to a prepo-
sition and a relative pronoun, and intro-
duce adjective clauses. |

The correct use of any of the subordinating con-
junctions makes a complex sentence, while the
codrdinating conjunctions, when used to connect
clauses, form compound sentences. (See Maxwell’s
Advanced Lessons in English Grammar, section 465.)

Exercise 49. Formation of complex and of compound
sentences. — Combine each of the following Sroups of sim-
ple sentences into (a) acompound sentence, (b) a complex
sentence. (c) Whenever it is possible, change the result-
ing sentence into a simple sentence.

Mark with a star which of the three sentences, (a),
(6), or (c), you think to, be the best one, and be prepared
to tell why.

In making change (b) the letter placed after each
Sroup of simple sentences refers you to the table of con-
junctions just given and suggests what relation between
the clauses is to be expressed.

ExaMPLe: I came home at seven o’clock. My brother had
already returned.

SENTENCE-FORMS 87

Changed (a) to a compound sentence: I came home at
seven o’clock and my brother had already returned.
(6) toa complex sentence: When I came home at
seven o'clock my brother had already returned (time clause used).
(c) to a simple sentence: By the hour of my
coming home, seven o’clock, my brother had already returned.
Here, of course, the complex sentence is best, since it ex-
presses most clearly and briefly the true relation between the
two statements given to be combined. The compound sentence
(a) is a distinctly bad sentence.

1. The piece of quartz was pure white. My father gave it
tome. (0)

2. Marion looked at his sister. He nodded. (j)

3. This has been one of the warmest days of the summer.
Of that there can be no doubt. (e)

4, The winter was now coming on. I had to complete my
house very rapidly. (/)

5. He determined to make the visit. He had to borrow
money to pay his way. (h)

6. Goldsmith was not well supplied with money. Johnson
had no more. (k) |

7. I stayed out under the tree a quarter of an hour longer.
I knew I should get wet. (7)

8. They wrap the trunk and boughs in woolen cloth. The
severity of the winter might kill the tree. (, d) a

9. They came at length to the very top of the hill. They
had a fine prospect of the surrounding country. (J)

10. I made haste to scramble to my feet. I could see who

the newcomer was. (J, g, d)

Skill in making the various kinds of transforma-
tions or substitutions that have now been spoken of,
and skill in making and selecting the three kinds of
sentences, will do something toward giving one’s
writing ease and variety in form of expression. A

88 WRITING IN ENGLISH

good deal of practice in these substitutions and in
sentence formation is necessary to the making of a
good writer. The ignorant or unskillful writer writes
tiresome and monotonous sentences, mostly com-
pound, or else very short, simple sentences. Learn
to say much in simple sentences by using modifiers ;
and learn to write complex sentences easily. Study
the table of conjunctions, and use the different kinds
as they are required, so that you will not overwork
the conjunction “and.” (See pages 54-56.)

Exercise 50. Combination of short statements into good
paragraphs.
EXAMPLE OF SHORT SENTENCES TO BE COMBINED : —

Washington was elected general of the army. THe was at
this time forty-three years of age. In stature he a little ex-
ceeded six feet. His limbs were sinewy and well proportioned.
His chest was broad. His figure was stately. It had dignity of
presence. It had ease of manner. His constitution was robust.
It had been tried and invigorated by his early life in the wilder-
ness. It had been tried and invigorated by his habit of oc-
cupation out of doors. Also by his rigid temperance. In
consequence of these facts few equaled him in strength of
arm. Few equaled him in power of endurance. His com-
plexion was florid. His hair was dark brown. His head was
in its shape perfectly round. ... His eyes were dark blue.
They were deeply set. They had an expression of resigna-
tion. They had an earnestness that was almost sad.

EXAMPLE OF COMBINATION : —
(Description of the appearance of George Washington.)
When Washington was elected general of the army he was

forty-three years of age. In stature he a little exceeded six
feet; his limbs were sinewy and well proportioned; his chest

SENTENCE-FORMS 89

broad, his figure stately, blending dignity of presence with ease
of manner. His robust constitution had been tried and in-
vigorated by his early life in the wilderness, his habit of
occupation out of doors, and his rigid temperance; so that few
equaled him in strength of arm or power of endurance. His
complexion was florid, his hair dark brown, his head in its
shape perfectly round. ... Huis dark blue eyes, which were
deeply set, had an expression of resignation and earnestness that
was almost sad.—GEorGE BANCROFT.

Combine the following sentences into well-written
paragraphs, making the proper headings and under-
scoring the topic sentences : —

(a) iI had my own little sled. It was filled with hay.
It was covered with reindeer skins. These things were to
keep me warm. So long as the weather was not too cold, it
was very pleasant to speed along. I sped through the dark
forests. I sped over the frozen rivers. Or I went past farm
after farm in the sheltered valleys. I went up hill and down.
I rode until long after the stars came out. It was very pleas-
ant then to get a warm supper.

(b) When Sir Roger is diverting himself in the woods or
the fields, I have a companion at the house. He is a venerable
man. He is always at Sir Roger’s. He has lived at his
house over thirty years. He is Sir Roger’s chaplain. This
gentleman is a person of good sense. He is a man of some
learning. He lives a very regular life. His conversation is
obliging. He heartily loves Sir Roger. He knows he is very
much in Sir Roger’s esteem.

(c) On the other side of the high town the houses stand
closer. Yet they leave the same space fora little walk. This
walk is shaded by sycamores. From it one looks down on the
whole southern reach of the lake. The lake opens wide to the
horizon. It is edged there like the sea. But in the summer
sunshine it looks like a well of blue. This well of blue looks
as if it was what the sunbeams drank to make the sky of.

CHAPTER VII
NARRATION

OnE who writes an account of the real or imagi-
nary events or happenings which a narrative con-
tains, must have in mind two points:— _

First, these events or happenings’ must in some
way be connected, that is, they must all be thought
of either as having chiefly to do with some one per-
son, or as having occurred at certain places, or as
relating to some one idea or plan.

Second, these events or happenings must be told
in some intended order, which should be definitely
thought out beforehand by the writer.

Both these points (unity and plan) are what we
must chiefly keep in view when we study the out-
lining of a narrative. Let us bear in mind that out-
lining always means grouping, that is, getting the
minor points in a composition arranged under head-
ings. We can grasp and carry in mind a small
number of headings or main topics much better than
we can a large number of codrdinate minor topics.
In addition to the advantages of plan, unity, and
completeness, this is another reason why it is helpful
to make outlines. It is like putting twenty or thirty

90

NARRATION | 91

small packages into two or three baskets; in that
way they are much more easily'carried. __

Now, how can we find headings under which to
group the minor events of a narrative? Suppose
there are thirty events or happenings to be told, how
can they be grouped? There are three principal
sorts of head topics under which the events of a story
may be grouped :—

-1. Periods,

2. Places,

3. Chief events.

We may divide the whole narrative ito sections
or periods of time. Thus the events of Longfellow’s
life may be grouped under these headings: (a) Period
of childhood and education, 1807-1825. (6b) Period
of early travel in Europe, 1825-1829. (c) Period of
professorship at Bowdoin, 1829-1835. (d) Period of
professorship at Cambridge, 1835-1882. In out-
lining a man’s life’ by periods, do not use common-
place headings, which might be used for any man’s
life, such as “boyhood,” “manhood,” “old age.”
After the words “ period of’ put, in each case, words
showing the character of the period in that particular
narrative. To illustrate the method .of periods from
a work of fiction, the events of the story of ELvan-

1In outlining the life of a man we may use (as one form of division
by periods) the man’s successive occupations. Thus, to illustrate from
Milton’s life we might use the headings: (a) Milton’s life as schoolboy
and college youth, 1608-1632. (db) His earlier life as poet, 1632-1641.
_ (c) His life as political writer and essayist, 1641-1660. (d) His life as
writer of epic poems, 1660-1674.

‘

92 WRITING IN ENGLISH

geline may be grouped under: (a) Period of love.
(b) Period of hope and search. (c) Period of despair.
Or, the story of Rip Van Winkle may be divided
into: (a) Period of idleness. (6) Period of sojourn
in the mountains. (c) Period of renewed life in the
village.

Exercise 51. Outlining by periods. — Read carefully
the following summary of the life of Lincoln, then out-
line it, using periods for main headings : ~

Abraham Lincolu—born in Hardin County, Kentucky, 1809
—when Lincoln was eight, his father moved to Indiana —
region then a wilderness —schools very rare—boy grew up
in pioneer life — learned to read, write, and cipher — at nine-
teen Lincoln went on a flatboat to New Orleans as a hired
hand —in 1830 family moved to Macon County, Illinois —
Lincoln hired out as a hand and later as a clerk in a country
store — borrowed a grammar and other books — volunteered
in the Black Hawk Indian War—studied surveying — 1834
elected to state legislature — studied law — reélected several
times — practiced law — married 1842 — elected one term to
Congress 1846 — made many antislavery speeches from 1854
on — 1860 nominated and elected for the presidency — directed
the movements of the war—issued Emancipation Proclama-
tion 1863 — reélected as President — witnessed end of war —
assassinated, 1865, by Wilkes Booth.

Exercise 52. Writing from outline. — Using your out-
line of the above summary, (a) tell orally, in complete
sentences, the life of Lincoln; (6) write a brief life of
Lincoln, paragraphing with care, and introducing all
the particulars given.

In outlining by places, which is not always pos-
sible, we have to group merely according to the

NARRATION | 93

chief scenes of the events. Thus, in outlining the
life of Longfellow, we might use these headings : —

(a) Life in Maine. (b) In Europe. (c) At Bow-
doin College. (d) At Cambridge, Massachusetts.

The life of Shakspere is easily outlined by places: —
- (a) Life in Stratford, 1564-1586. (b) In London,
1586-1611. (c) Last years at Stratford, 1611-1616.

Or, in outlining Shakspere’s play, The Merchant
of Venice (see Lamb’s Zales from Shakspere for the
story, which may well be used as a reading lesson),
we might group the events under : —

(a) In Venice (the bond given; Jessica’s elope-
ment). (6) At Belmont (the three suitors and the
caskets; the news of Antonio’s losses). (c) In the
Court of Justice, Venice (Shylock punished). (d)
Closing scenes at Belmont.

Exercise 53. Outlining a narrative by places. — Group
the minor incidents in the following story under head-
ings that indicate places. After the outline is made,
reproduce the story orally, following the outline.

JOHN GILPIN’S RIDE

John Gilpin was a citizen of credit and renown ;

A train-band captain eke was he of famous London town.

John Gilpin’s spouse said to her dear, “Though wedded we
have been

These twice ten tedious years, yet we no holiday have seen.

“To-morrow is our wedding day, and we will then repair
Unto the Bell at Edmonton, all in a chaise and pair.

My sister and my sister’s child, myself and children three,
Will fill the chaise; so you must ride on horseback after we.”

94 WRITING IN ENGLISH

He soon replied, “I do admire of womankind but one,
And you are she, my dearest dear, therefore it shall be done.
I am a linen draper bold, as all the world doth know;
And my good friend the calender will lend his horse to go.”

Quoth Mrs. Gilpin, “ That’s well said; and, for that wine is dear,

We will be furnished with our own, which is both bright and
clear.”

John Gilpin kissed his loving wife; o’erjoyed was he to find

That, though on pleasure she was bent, she had a frugal mind.

The morning came, the chaise was brought, but yet was not
allowed

To drive up to the door, lest all should say that she was proud.

So three doors off the chaise was stayed, where they did all get
In;

Six precious souls, and all agog to dash through thick and
thin. °

Smack went the whip, round went the wheels; were never folks
so glad;

The stones did rattle underneath, as if Cheapside were mad.

John Gilpin at his horse’s side seized fast the flowing mane,

And up he got, in haste to ride, but soon came down again.

For saddle-tree scarce reached had he, his journey to begin,

When, turning round his head, he saw three customers come in.

So down he came; for loss of time, although it grieved him sore,

Yet loss of pence, full well he knew, would trouble him much
more.

"T'was long before the customers were suited to their mind,

When Betty, screaming, came down stairs, “The wine is left
behind!”

“Good lack!” quoth he; “yet bring it me, my leathern belt
likewise,

In which I bear my trusty sword when I do exercise.”

NARRATION 95

Now Mrs. Gilpin (careful soul!) had two stone bottles found,
To hold the liquor that she loved, and keep it safe and sound.
Each bottle had a curling ear, through which the belt he drew,
And hung a bottle on each side, to make his balance true.

Then over all, that he might be equipped from top to toe,

His long red cloak, well brushed and neat, he manfully did
throw.

Now see him mounted once again upon his nimble steed,

Full slowly pacing o’er the stones with caution and good heed.

But finding soon a smoother road beneath his well-shod feet,

The snorting beast began to trot, which galled him in his seat.

So, “Fair and softly,” John he cried, but John he cried in
Vain ;

The trot became a gallop soon, in spite of curb and rein.

So, stooping down, as needs he must, who cannot sit upright,

He grasped the mane with both his hands, and eke with all his
might.

His horse, which never in that sort had handled been before,

What thing upon his back had got did wonder more and more.

Away went Gilpin, neck or naught; away went hat and wig;

He little dreamed when he set out of running such a rig.

The wind did blow, the cloak did fly like streamer long and
Bay,

Till, loop and button failing both, at last it flew away.

Then might all people well discern the bottles he had slung;

‘A bottle swinging at each side, as hath been said or sung.

The dogs did bark, the children screamed, up flew the windows
all,

And every soul cried out, “Well done!” as loud as he could
bawl.

96 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Away went Gilpin, who but he! his fame soon spread around;

‘He carries weight! He rides a race! ’Tis for a thousand
pound!”

And still, as fast as he drew near, ’twas wonderful to view

How in a trice the turnpike men their gates wide open threw.

And now, as he went bowing down his reeking head full low,

The bottles twain, behind his back, were shattered at a blow.

Down ran the wine into the road, most piteous to be seen,

Which made his horse’s flanks to smoke as they had basted
been.

But still he seemed to carry weight, with leathern girdle braced,
For all might see the bottle necks still dangling at his waist.
Thus all through merry Islington these gambols he did play,
And till he came unto the Wash of Edmonton so gay.

And there he threw the wash about on both sides of the way,
. Just like unto a trundling mop, or a wild goose at play.

At Edmonton his loving wife from the balcony spied

Her tender husband, wondering much to see how he did ride.

“Stop, stop, John Gilpin! Here’s the house!” they all at once
did cry ; |

“ The dinner waits, and we are tired!” Said Gilpin, “SoamI!”

But yet his horse was not a whit inclined to tarry there;

For why ? his owner had a house, full ten miles off, at Ware.

So like an arrow swift he flew, shot by an archer strong ;

So did he fly — which brings me to the middle of my song.
Away went Gilpin, out of breath, and sore against his will,
Till at his friend the calender’s his horse at last stood still.

The calender, amazed to see his neighbor in such trim,

Laid down his pipe, flew to the gate, and thus accosted him:

“What news? what news? your tidings tell; tell me you
must and shall;

Say why bareheaded you are come, or why you come af all?”

NARRATION 97

Now Gilpin had a pleasant wit, and loved a timely joke;

And thus unto the calender in merry guise he spoke:

‘‘T came because your horse would come: and, if I well fore-
bode, | '

My hat and wig will soon be here, they are upon the road.”

The calender, right glad to find his friend in merry pin,

Returned him not a single word, but to the house went in;

Whence straight he came with hat and wig — a wig that flowed
behind,

A hat not much the worse for wear, each comely in its kind.

He held them up, and in his turn thus showed his ready wit,—

‘‘ My head is twice as big as yours; they therefore needs must
fit. |

But let me scrape the dirt away that hangs upon your face;

And stop and eat, for well you may be in a hungry case.”

Said John, “It is my wedding day, and all the world would
stare

If wife should dine at Edmonton and I should dine at Ware.”

So, turning to his horse he said, “I am in haste to dine:

’Twas for your pleasure you came here, you shall go back for
mine.”

Ah, luckless speech and bootless boast! for which he paid full
dear ;

For, while he spoke, a braying ass did sing most loud and
clear ;

Whereat his horse did snort, as he had heard a lion roar,

And galloped off with all his might, as he had done before.

Away went Gilpin, and away went Gilpin’s hat and wig:

He lost them sooner than the first; for why ?— they were
too big.

Now Mrs. Gilpin, when she saw her husband posting down

Into the country far away, she pulled out half a crown;

WRIT. IN ENG. —7

98 WRITING IN ENGLISH

And thus unto the youth she said, that drove them to the Bell,

“ This shall be yours, when you bring back my husband safe
and well.”

The youth did ride, and soon did meet John coming back
amain,

Whom in a trice he tried to stop, by catching at his rein;

But not performing what he meant, and gladly would have
done,

The frightened steed he frightened more, and made him faster
run.

Away went Gilpin, and away went postboy at his heels ;

The postboy’s horse right glad to miss the lumbering of the
wheels.

Six gentlemen upon the road thus seeing Gilpin fly,

With postboy scampering in the rear, they raised the hue and
cry:

“Stop thief! stop thief! a highwayman!’’—not one of
them was mute,

And all and each that passed that way did join in the pursuit.

And now the turnpike gates again flew open in short space,
The tollmen thinking as before that Gilpin rode a race.

And so he did, and won it too, for he got first to town,

Nor stopped till where he had got up he did again get down.

Now let us sing, “Long live the king,” and Gilpin, long live
he,
And when he next doth ride abroad may I be there to see.

WILLIAM COWPER.

Finally, in outlining by chief events, we select for
headings those few turning points in the narrative,
on which many minor events and details hinge or

NARRATION 99

depend. Thus, to outline the life of Franklin (1706-
1790), we might use the headings : —

(a) Franklin learns printing in Boston, 1718. (0)
He goes to Philadelphia, 1723. (c) Publishes the
first Poor Richard’s Almanac, 1732. (d) Goes to
London as colonial representative, 1757. (e) Is
chosen an American representative to Paris, 1776.

Or, to outline a narrative poem by chief events,
we may take for illustration Paul Revere’s Ride
(see Longfellow’s Zales of a Wayside Inn) : —

I. Introduction — the subject of the tale
II. Body of the narrative

(a) Paul Revere arranges to be signaled from the
church tower
1. Signals are agreed upon
2. Revere sets out
3. His friend learns of the intended march
of the British

(6) The friend climbs the tower
1. Sees from there the British troops set-
ting forth
2. Revere waits impatiently in Charlestown
3. The signal is given
(c) The ride begins
1. He reaches Medford
2. He passes through Lexington
3. He arouses Concord

III. Conclusion —the results of that ride

100 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Caution must be taken, in using this last method,
that each head topic is an event or occurrence. Do
not fall into the error of mingling in one outline two
or all of the three methods we are considering
(periods, places, chief events). Keep the three
entirely distinct. Decide which method you purpose
using in an outline, and then keep to it strictly.
Also in using any method state all your main topics
in a similar form, whether that of brief sentences, or
that of nouns with modifiers.

Exercise 54. Outlining of narrative poems. — (a) Out-
line in a similar way at least two of the following
poems either by “ chief events” or by “ periods”; (b) then
tell or write the stories, using your outlines as Suides : —

King Robert of Sicily. ; H. W. Longfellow
The Skeleton in Armor . ; H. W. Longfellow
The Bell of Atri . . H. W. Longfellow
The Ballad of Carmilhan ; H. W. Longfellow
The Falcon of Ser Federigo . H. W. Longfellow
The Vision of Sir Launfal J. R. Lowell

(For this purpose omit the preludes.)
Hervé Riel . Robert Browning
The Pied Piper of Hamelin ; Robert Browning
Maud Muller . J. G. Whittier
The Garrison of Cape Ann ; J. G. Whittier
Horatius at the Bridge . ; T. B. Macaulay
Alice Brand ; ; Sir Walter Scott
Lady Clare ; . A. Tennyson
The Passing of Arthur . . A. Tennyson
Dora ; ; A. Tennyson
Lord Ullin’s Daughter . . T. Campbell
Bishop Hatto ; R. Southey

The Prisoner of Chillon . . Lord Byron

NARRATION 101

Sir Patrick Spens . «Old ballad |
Sir Hugh (Hugh of Lincoln) . Old ballad
Bewick and Grahame . ; Old ballad

(See the title Ballads, in Appendix V.)

Exercise 55. — Outline some prose story you have read
lately, by “periods” and then by “ chief events,” in each
case putting in the minor events; then compare the two
outlines and decide which is preferable for that story.

Using your outline as a guide, reproduce, orally or in
writing, the story.

Stories suitable for use in this exercise may be found in such
books as the following: — |

A Wonder Book . . Nath. Hawthorne
Twice-Told Tales . . Nath. Hawthorne

The Age of Fable . . Thomas Bulfinch

Tales from Shakspere . . Charles and Mary Lamb
Tales of a Traveler- ; . Washington Irving
Christmas Stories . . Charles Dickens

In Ole Virginia . . Thomas N. Page

Main Traveled Roads . . Hamlin Garland

Van Bibber and Other Stories Richard H. Davis

Exercise 56. Outlining a biography. — Outline the life
of some American by “places,” or by “chief events,” intro-
ducing the more important details of his life as subtopics.

Construction of narratives. — When we write a nar-
rative, there are four sorts of reasons why our readers
may be interested: (a) The events themselves, and
the order in which they are told, in other words, what
we call the story or plot, may be a source of interest ;
(b) The characters of the persons in the narrative
may be interesting; (c) The scene or scenes of the

102 WRITING IN ENGLISH

events (what may be called the background or setting
of the principal figures and events) may be interest-
ing; and (d) In the works of able and excellent
writers, the style of the writing, that is, the language
used, and the personal qualities of the writer as
shown in what he says, should be no small source of
interest and pleasure. To repeat, then, good nar-
ratives are enjoyed on account of : —

1. The style: —

The language used may be clear, smooth, and
musical, equal to all demands upon it for the expres-
sion and suggestion of emotions.

The writing may contain wit, humor, sympathy,
pathos, wisdom, acuteness.

2. The scenes or setting : —

Which may be interesting because of familiarity,
or of strangeness; of beauty, or of sadness and horror.

3. The characters, which may be interesting be-
cause they are:—

Made to seem lifelike,

Shown as resourceful, heroic, and admirable,

Shown as contemptible, or unfortunate, or

Made comical or entertaining.

4. The plot or story, which may be interesting be-
cause of : —

The strangeness or extraordinariness of the events,

The element of mystery,

NARRATION 103

Our natural sympathy with characters placed in
the particular situation described, in which they have
difficulties to overcome and ends to accomplish, or,

The working out of some plan or idea.

As far as the plot alone is concerned, it may be
said that the element of mystery is what chiefly in-
terests us in ghost stories and in detective stories;
the element of strangeness or remarkableness, in
adventure stories, stories of travel, or comic stories;
and the elements of natural sympathy and curiosity, in
stories of difficulties overcome or of success achieved,
as ‘in stories of undertakings, or of events that work
out definite consequences.

In reading a work of fiction, we should think
about all four of the sources of interest given in the
table above. By so doing we not only shall get much
more enjoyment out of what we read, but shall become
able to form intelligent opinions of books and able to
give reasons for liking them or disliking them, in
whole or in part.

Exercise 57. Study of interest. — Using the above out-
line, think carefully over some story you are familiar
with, chosen by yourself or by the teacher, and write
down the reasons for its being interesting to you.
(1) Under the head of style, write whether the book or
story has, in your opinion, any of the qualities named
in the outline. (2) State what the setting or background
of the events is, and for what reasons it is interesting.
(3) State which of the characters are interesting, and
why. (4) State for what reasons, given in the table
above, the plot is interesting.

104 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 58. Study of interest.— Write a list of five
narratives or stories (in prose or verse) which you have
read, and under the name of each write the reason or
reasons why the plot is interesting, why one of the char-
acters is interesting, and why the setting or scene is
interesting.

Exercise 59. Narration from picture.— Think out a
story suggested by the picture on page 105, make an
outline, and write the story, seeking to make tt inter-
esting by reason of the scenes, the characters, and the
events.

Brief narratives or anecdotes are usually interest-
ing because of the nature of the events, or because
of some point they illustrate, whether comical or
serious. But even in these the interestingness of
characters and of scenes should not be lost sight of.

Exercise 60. Anecdotes. — Bring to class two anecdotes,
or interesting brief narratives, found by you in a news-
paper or elsewhere. (a) Write down, referring to the out-
line we have been studying, the reasons for the selection’s
being interesting. (b) Tell the anecdotes orally.

Exercise 61. Anecdotes and historical sketches from
summaries.

MODELS FOR STUDY

(a) The Sphinx. (From The Age of Fable, by Thomas
Bulfinch.)

Shortly after this event, the city of Thebes was afflicted
with a monster which infested the highroad. It was called
the Sphinx. It had the body of a lion, and the upper part of
a woman. It lay crouched on the top of a rock, and arrested
all travelers who came that way, proposing to them a riddle,

106 WRITING IN ENGLISH

with the condition that those who could solve it should pass
safe, but those who failed should be killed. Not one had yet
succeeded in solving it, and all had been slain. (&dipus was
not daunted by these alarming accounts, but boldly advanced
to the trial. The Sphinx asked him, “ What animal is that
which in the morning goes on four feet, at noon on two, and in
the evening upon three?” (&dipus replied, “Man, who in
childhood creeps on hands and knees, in manhood walks erect,
and in old age with the aid of a staff.” The Sphinx was so
mortified at the solving of her riddle that she cast herself
down from the rock and perished.

(6) Perry’s Victory. (From Eggleston’s History of the United
States.)

A little fleet was launched on Lake Erie in 1813, and its
officers and men were anxious to rival the glory of the American
ships at sea. In the battle of Lake Erie, fought this year,
Commodore Perry hung up for his signal, “ Don’t give up the
ship!’’ the dying words of Lawrence. When his flagship was
riddled and disabled by the enemy, he got into a small boat and
was rowed to another vessel, standing upright while the enemy
was raining shot about him. Reaching the ship Niagara, he
sailed down on the British line and broke it, and at length
compelled the whole fleet to surrender. At the close of the
battle, Perry wrote to General Harrison, “We have met the
enemy, and they are ours.”

Write out or tell orally the stories suggested in these
summaries, seeking to interest your readers, not only by
the nature of the incidents, but also by the characters of
the personages, and by the description of an attractive or
unusual scene or setting : —

(a) Legend of William Tell. The Swiss ordered to toss
their caps in the air at sight of Gessler, the Austrian — Tell
refuses —is arrested —is found to be renowned as a skillful

NARRATION. 107

archer —is made by Gessler to shoot at an apple which is
placed on the head of Tell’s son— the arrow pierces the apple
— Tell is found to have concealed other arrows under his
coat — “ To kill thee, tyrant, had I slain my boy!”

(6) The bundle of sticks. Quarreling brothers — father can-
not make them friendly — has sons try to break bundle of
sticks — both fail—-then bundle is undone —the separate
sticks are easily broken — quarrelsome brothers are like sepa-
rated sticks —in union there is strength.

(c) The hare and the tortoise. The hare makes fun of the
tortoise’s slowness — the tortoise offers to race the hare — the
tortoise starts off —the hare laughs at the idea of such an
easy race — decides to take a nap — when he awakes the tor-
toise has reached the goal.

(d) Aretort. Samuel Foote had a wooden leg—a person
one day amused himself by remarking on this limb — Foote
became annoyed —at last he said, “ Why do you attack me
on my weakest part? I never said anything against your
head!”

(e) The Pilgrims. They move from England to Holland —
decide to come to America— prepare to depart—ship, the
Mayflower — the voyage —landing in December — settlement
at Plymouth — hardships of the winter — why we remember
the Pilgrims.

(f) The battle of Trenton. Fifteen hundred hired Hessian
soldiers stationed at Trenton—on Christmas night, 1776,
Washington crossed the Delaware —it took all night to cross
—river full of floating ice— Hessians stupefied from their
drinking and reveling of the night before —they were sur-
prised at light in the morning —a thousand taken prisoners.

(g) Discovery of gold in California. Existence of the gold
long known to the Indians and Mexicans of that region — the
discovery on the Sacramento in 1848 — the rush of gold seekers
in 1849 — dangers of the long journey overland or by way of the
Isthmus of Panama — hard and dangerous life in California —
the result.

108 WRITING IN ENGLISH

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Exercise 62. Writing from picture. — Write a story sug-
Sested by this picture.

In writing a story of your own, if it 1s a true story,
it is not worth telling unless the occurrences are more
or less interesting. If the characters or the places
are also interesting, so much the better. A great
deal depends upon the way the story is begun. It is
usual to suggest in the first few sentences or in the
first paragraph the setting of the narrative —the
time, the scene, some of the characters. You may
bring your own feelings or ideas somewhat into the
composition, by explanations or remarks, humorous
or otherwise. If the story is an invented one, see

NARRATION 109

to it that, for some of the reasons we have been
studying, it is made interesting. Let the story have
a center of interest, and let the incidents lead up to
the situation of greatest interest.

Exercise 63. Developing original narratives. — Write

out the following suggested narratives, or write similar
brief narratives from subjects chosen by yourself. In-
dent carefully for the paragraphs, and mark in each
paragraph the topic sentence. In writing do not forget
the characters and the scenes or surroundings, as sources
of interest.
_ (a) The story of our camping out. How we came to think
of it—who talked it over — where we decided to go— what
we took — how we got to the place —the pitching of the tent
—the cooking of meals— what we all did — incidents — the
breaking up — the return.

(b) A country boy’s visit to the city. How he came to go
— getting ready — catching the train — the railway journey —
what he first saw in the city — incidents — places visited —
the most remarkable sight of all — the return home.

(c) A picnic by the river. The company —the preparations
— the weather — how the members of the party got to the river
— what the boys did during the morning— what the girls
did —the dinner — the fishing —the games played — the ride
homeward.

Exercise 64. Reproductions. — (a) Select a poem men-
tioned in the list in Exercise 54, one that you have not
previously reproduced, and develop it into a carefully
written story. Avoid the language of the poem; merely
tell the story in your own words.

(6) Select a story told in one of the books named in
Exercise 55, read it once or twice very carefully, then
write from memory the story, imitating the language of
the original as closely as you can.

110 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 65. Original narration. — The problem is to
work up a true story, known to you, of an adventure.
When you come to write it, you will have to describe the
scene and the chief characters (not all at first), and to tell
the events in an interesting way.

(a). First, prepare a careful outline of the entire com-
posttion, using places or chief events or periods for the
headings. )

(6) Write the story, introducing description wherever
necessary, but holding to your outline and telling the
story clearly and connectedly. Attend to the paragraph-
ing. In this the outline will guide you.

CHAPTER VIII
CLEARNESS IN WRITING

THERE is no use in writing at all unless you make
clear what you have to say. It is not enough to write
so that you may be understood; you ought to write
so that you cannot be misunderstood. Language is
for the communication of ideas. If your reader does
not understand what you meant to say, there is no
communication, and you may as well not have written.
Therefore, whatever you write, write clearly.

Of course, no one can write clearly without think-
ing clearly. You must know and understand com-
pletely what you wish to say, or else it is useless for
you to begin. The only way to do is to write about
what you know and understand. Do not attempt
subjects that are difficult, abstract, or unfamiliar.
Take simple, easy, and above all near-at-hand topics
at first, topics about which you can write of your own
knowledge; and in writing upon these do not try to
utter ideas or to talk about supposed facts that you
do not comprehend. For instance, avoid all such
subjects as The Ideal, Fortune, Virtue and Happiness,
Miserliness, Generosity; better write about an insect,
or a plant, or an old chair, or something you saw or
did last week or yesterday, things upon which you

111

112 WRITING IN ENGLISH

can direct your five senses and actually learn and
know something, than try to write on an object you
have never seen or an idea nobody can ever see, a
place you have never visited or a feeling you never
experienced. Stuff written about vague, lofty, or far-
off themes is usually lacking both in clearness and in
interest. But when you have written from your own
knowledge or experience, no matter how common and
simple the subject, your writing is far more likely to
be not only intelligible but readable.

But aside from understanding precisely what you
want to say, there are some difficulties met with in
the use of language itself; and to learn to avoid certain
faults in sentence making will do much to secure
clearness in all that you write.

I. Lack of unity.— In the first place, having unity
in all your sentences will do a great deal toward
making them clear. We have studied unity in Chap-
ter IV, so we need say no more about it here than to
notice that when two or more ideas, unconnected in
thought, are put together in one sentence, the effect
is confusing, and the sentence fails to express any
idea with sufficient clearness. Or, when a number of
ideas, connected in thought, but some of them impor-
tant and some unimportant, are strung along in one
sentence full of “ands,” the sentence is pretty certain
to lack clearness, simply because it does not emphasize
the really important idea, but offers a jumble of
several ideas, most of which should be merely modi-
fiers. |

CLEARNESS IN WRITING 113

For examples of sentences thus lacking in unity
and clearness, see those referred to in Exercise 26.

II. Omitting necessary words.— To omit words that
are necessary to the sense is a much commoner fault
than may be supposed.

(a) Sometimes it 1s merely a matter of good gram-
mar, as in such sentences as the following (further
illustrations are given in Exercise 28, and in Exercise

129): —

1. Such mistakes always have and always will happen.

(Good English requires the word “ happened” after “ have.”)
. 2. He knows better than go there.

3. Look -up in the dictionary every word the spelling of
which you are not certain. |

4. She is as old, if not older, than her brother.

5. I have for over a year, and I will still continue, to pay my
rent promptly.

6. I do not think he is any taller, if as tall, as I am.

7. You are the man whom the letter is addressed.

_(b) Sometimes such words as other, else, or before
are carelessly omitted. Examples: —

1. This has been a greater exposition than was ever at-
tempted. |

(The word “before ” must be inserted after “ever”; other-
wise the statement is untrue. )

2. Nobody ever knew so much about fishes as Agassiz did.

3. No period of ten years ever saw so much progress in
science as the last ten years have seen.

4, She thinks nobody knows so much as she does.

5. I believe no one ever saw so beautiful a sunset as this.

6. I think no dog ever had so fine a coat as this one has.

7. New York is larger than any city in this country.

WRIT. IN ENG.—8

114 WRITING IN ENGLISH -

(c) Sometimes a necessary verb, preposition, or
other part of speech is omitted in statements of com-
parisons, after than or as. Examples: —

1. He likes me more than you.
(Insert “he does” after “than,” or “do” after “you,”
according to which is meant.)
2. Marmosets are as much like men as some monkeys.
. That dog looks more like a wolf than a bloodhound.
. This meat belongs to this dog rather than that.
. He wished for.it more than his brother. .
. He wished for nothing more than a dog.
. That stone resembles a dumpling more than anything else.

“1 Ot Bm Go

(d) Examples of other faulty omissions, including
the omission of the article : —

1. If dead, his wife and children may apply.

2. This blacksmith can repair the machine when injured.

3. The wise and (the) good are all too few. (What differ-
ence is made by the inserting of “the ” ?)

4, We know how likely the loss of all was, when we think
how thick the fog was, and especially we remember how the
wind blew.

5. Some persons cannot tell the difference between the use
of a colon and A a semicolon.

6. The society elected a secretary and A treasurer, who
were to hold office for one year.

7. I believed A. the man was honest and A he was
accused falsely. .

8. He selected out of the herd all the white and A black
horses.

9. I cannot remember (A one thing he said.

10. If he is not a scoundrel, he is very near A one.

1 See Maxwell’s Advanced Lessons in English Grammar, p. 188.

CLEARNESS IN WRITING 115

11. For that crop of grass, though A green and fresh, the
farmer got only five dollars a ton.

12. $5000 reward if you can set fire to anything after wash-
ing in flamine.

Exercise 66. Supplying faulty omissions. — Correct all
the sentences Siven in the four groups given above as
ulustratings faulty omissions.

III. Faulty use of pronouns.—One of the com-
monest faults of thoughtless writers is the use of a
pronoun without a perfectly certain antecedent. Pro-
nouns in themselves mean nothing; they merely
stand for their antecedents. Hence it is foolish to
put into a sentence a pronoun of whose antecedent
the reader may not be certain.

EXAMPLES: (a) Mary asked her mother how old she was.

Mary said to her mother, “ How old are you?” (Or, “How
old am I ?”’)
(6) On the mountain, at one place, there was a stone face,
which we had much trouble in reaching.

On the mountain, at a place which we had much trouble j in
reaching, there was a stone face.

Exercise 67. Obscure pronouns. — Correct the following
sentences, either by using direct quotation, by changing
the arrangement of the words, or by making clear in some
other way what is the antecedent of each pronoun that is
doubtful in meaning.

1. He made that remark without leaving me a chance to make
a reply, which I thought was very wrong.

2. The gentleman told his brother that the umbrella he had
borrowed was worthless, and so he returned it.

1 See Maxwell’s Advanced Lessons in English Grammar, pp. 246-247.

116 WRITING IN ENGLISH

3. Henry called yesterday to see my father, for he had writ-
ten to him to make the engagement to do so.
4, There are many pets of different characters, which are all
good enough.
5. He says there is near here one dangerous place, and that
is certainly worth knowing.
6. When the Indians stole his horses, he said they were
worthless beasts that ought to be shot.
7. Among the new arrivals was Mr. Derby, now so loved by
every one, who was to officiate on the occasion.
8. He said he had talked with the agent, and he would do all
he could to prevent the injustice. This is just what I wanted.
9. The poor boy said his father used to beat him till he was
out of breath.
10. He was surprised, he said, that he had not done as he was
directed to do.
11. On the opposite sides of the bridge are walks for foot pas-
sengers that are about three feet wide.
12. He was a man of great height, and that accounted for his
being able to see.
13. They issued a circular concerning the horse thief, that
offered a reward of ten dollars for his arrest.

IV. The “which” habit. — Sometimes a sentence is
made very uncertain in meaning and very tiresome
by the careless repeating of “which,” “who” or “that”
with different antecedents. A familiar example is the
tale in which we read, “This is the dog that worried
the cat that caught the rat that ate the malt that lay
in the house that Jack built.” It is needless to say
that sentences like this are amusingly lacking in
unity; yet we sometimes find examples like those
below, written in all seriousness. One relative in a
sentence is usually enough, unless the relatives refer

CLEARNESS IN WRITING 117

to the same antecedent and the clauses are connected
by codrdinating conjunctions.

EXAMPLE: These words, which were not meant as a joke,
seemed funny to the audience, which had not expected a speech
to be so serious, which Mark Twain delivered.

CorreEctep: Though these words were not meant as a joke,
they seemed funny to an audience which had not expected a
speech of Mark Twain’s to be so serious.

Exercise 68. The ‘‘ which ’’ habit. — Rewrite the follow-
ing sentences, so as to give them clearness and unity.
One Sood device is to write in place of a relative clause an
adjective modifier, either a word or a phrase, or a noun
tn apposition.

1. Burnes, whose father was a business man who had accu-
mulated a tolerable fortune, grew up in idleness, which was
very much to his taste.

2. The suit of clothes, which was much the worse for the
wear and tear which it had received in the summer which its
owner had spent in the mountains, had still to be of service.

3. The point in which he most excelled was the use of the
tomahawk, which he could hurl with a skill which amazed us.

4, This story winds at first like a quiet brook, which leads
here and there across green fields, which gradually give way to
a stern and rocky region in which there are abrupt cataracts.

5. He had no books excepting an old copy of Paradise
Lost, which he read in the intervals of his work, in which way
he acquired some of the knowledge of good poetry which gave
him pleasure all through his life.

V. Misplacing of modifiers — Words, phrases, and
clause modifiers may all be misplaced, and frequently
are. In fact, this misplacing is the most common
of all the faults of sentence making. It is sometimes

118 WRITING IN ENGLISH

called “squinting construction.” When a modifier
squints, or can be taken as belonging to one or the
other of two words in the sentence, the statement may,
of course, be taken in two ways, and is therefore not
clear. One of the most frequently misplaced words
is “only.” Be sure to place it where it can limit
only what you intend it to limit.’

Note the different meanings of the following sentences : —

Only I saw three men.
I saw only three men.
I saw three men only.
I only saw three men.

Another class of words often misplaced is parti-
ciples. As a rule, when a sentence begins with a
participle, the latter is understood to modify the
subject of the sentence, as in the following ex-
amples : —

Trusting to hear from you soon, I remain your friend, E. 8. 8.
Brought to a halt in that direction, the animal faced about
toward us.

It is very important also to remember this caution,
that when two words are used correlatively (as both

. and, not only .. . . but (also), either .. . or,
etc.), each member of the pair should come before
the same part of speech. Thus in the sentence
“ John not only had to walk the whole distance, but
to carry his little brother a part of the way,” not

1 See Maxwell’s Advanced Lessons in English Grammar, pp. 260-268.

CLEARNESS IN WRITING 119

only should come after had, so that the correlatives
may stand next to the codrdinate infinitives.

Exercise 69. Misplaced modifiers. — Correct the follow-
ing sentences, by rearrangement or by substitution of
equivalent expressions for the modifiers, so as to make
the sentences mean clearly one thing and one thing only.

EXAMPLE: For rent, a well-furnished parlor, for a lady,
thirty-five feet wide.
~ CorrecTeD: For rent, a well-furnished parlor, thirty-five
feet wide, suitable for a lady.

1. For that crop of grass, though it was green and fresh,
the farmer only got five dollars a ton.
2. Tell him, if he thinks so, he should stay at home.
3. Thinking this amusing, like a fool, he never suspected
treachery.
4. I was almost allowed to do as I pleased.
5. That talk is only fit for the dullest of company.
6. He only receives four dollars a week, and has nearly
spent all of it before the week is half gone.
7. He had only been there two days.
8. Rising upon tiptoe, the mere top of the gable could be
seen from where he stood.
9. This rug was bought by a firm in Troy, costing over a
hundred dollars.
10. Having removed the top of the jar, the mysterious con-
tents were displayed to our sight.
11. Crowned by a tuft of poplar trees, we at last saw the
hill that rose near our destination.
12. Trusting to hear from you favorably, believe me
sincerely yours.
. 13. The train had already rounded the curve, carrying over
a hundred passengers, when the engineer saw the danger
signal, and, reversing the lever, the train stopped.

120 WRITING IN ENGLISH

14. A dog that had long belonged to a man living during
those years in Cairo, never having been ill a day, suddenly
died.

15. I never remember to have heard a more convincing
argument.

16. He not only looked at rugs but at carpets.

17. This is neither the time for idleness nor for play.

18. The teacher said we should not aim merely to memorize
the lesson, but to understand it.

19. It is a country not more attractive to the farmer than to
the soldier.

20. He spoke both like a manly fellow and a kindly one.

21. He did not wish to be president but still to remain in
the position to which he was accustomed.

Exercise 70. Lack of clearness. — Examine one of your
recently written compositions for examples of the mis-
placing of modifiers, the improper wse of pronouns,
faulty omissions of words, or for other causes of lack of
clearness. On a sheet of paper write, opposite all your
sentences lacking clearness, corrected or tmproved sen-
tences of the same meaning.

Exercise 71. Composition. — (a) Prepare an outline for
a description of a street scene that you have witnessed.

(6) Write the composition, mentioning impressions
of colors, shadows, movement, form, odors, etc. (See -
page 65.)

(c) After writing, look the composition over and cor-
rect all sentences lacking, for any reason, in clearness.

(da) Copy the corrected composition into the exercise
book.

CHAPTER IX
CONTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS

Srnce all we say goes into our paragraphs, it is
extremely important that we learn what to put into
these developments of the topics on hand. Givena
topic, what shall we say about it? What ways are
there of treating it? We have already seen that
since each well-made paragraph has its distinct topic,
or deals with its own particular part of the whole
composition, everything in the paragraph must have
to do with this topic, otherwise there would be a
lack of unity. Now for the question, how may we
fill out, illustrate, or develop the topic, so as to make
our handling of it interesting and adequate ?

First, a caution: no matter what we say in a para-
graph, our sentences should be connected in thought ;
they should follow one another easily and naturally
throughout each paragraph. This is one reason why
topic sentences are useful. When we read a topic
sentence, we naturally expect the explanation of it,
and thus the paragraph reads smoothly. An em-
phatic word in one sentence suggests the beginning
of the next remark, and thus we go on without effort
from sentence to sentence.

What shall be written in paragraphs ?— There are
several ways of developing paragraphs, and with all

121

122 WRITING IN ENGLISH

these ways we should be familiar. Which of them
we should use in a given case depends, as we shall
see, upon the kind of composition, the nature of the
topic, and what we desire to say.

I. Details or particulars. — If the topic is a single
object, scene, person, incident, or the like, the para-
graph consists usually of details or particulars. For
example, in the following paragraphs (descriptive),
the topic is in one case an English farm, in the other
a country church. In such a case the subject is a
single scene, and the natural way to deal with it is
to give particulars about it.

On one of these solitary houses, the afternoon sun, about to
descend before very long behind the hills, was still lingering
on this May afternoon we are describing, bringing the white-
washed porch and the broad bands of white edging the win-
dows, into relief against the gray stone of the main fabric, the
gray roof overhanging it, and the group of sycamores and
Scotch firs which protected it from the cold east and north.
The western light struck full on a copper beech which made a
welcome patch of warm color in front of a long gray line of
outhouses standing level with the house, and touched the
heckberry blossom which marked the upward course of the
little lane connecting the old farm with the road; above it
rose the green fell, broken here and there by jutting crags,
and below it the ground sank rapidly through a piece of young
hazel plantation, at this present moment a sheet of bluebells,
toward the level of the river. There was a dainty and yet
sober brightness about the whole picture.

— From Robert Elsmere, by Mrs. Humphry Ward, Ch. IL.

I am fond of loitering about country churches; and this
was so delightfully situated, that it frequently attracted me.

CONTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS 123

It stood on a knoll, around which a small stream made a
beautiful bend, and then wound its way through a long reach
of meadow scenery. The church was surrounded by yew trees,
which seemed almost coeval with itself. Its tall Gothic spire
shot up lightly from among them, with rooks and crows
generally wheeling about it.

—From The Sketch Book, by Washington Irving.

The following paragraph shows how the method
of particulars and details is used in narration : —

The history relates that Sancho Panza was conducted from
the court of justice to a sumptuous palace, where, in a great
hall, he found a magnificent entertainment prepared. He no
sooner entered than his ears were saluted by the sound of
instruments, and four pages served him with water to wash
his hands. The music having ceased, Sancho now sat down to
dinner in a chair of state, placed at the upper end of the table;
for there was but one seat, and only one plate and napkin.
A personage, who, as it afterward appeared, was a physician,
took his stand at one side of his chair, with a whalebone rod
in his hand. They then removed the beautiful white cloth,
which covered a variety of fruits and other eatables. Grace
was said by one in a student’s dress, and a laced bib was
placed, by a page, under Sancho’s chin. Another, who per-
formed the office of taster, now set a plate of fruit before him,
but he had scarcely tasted it when, on being touched by the
wand bearer, it was snatched away, and another containing
meat supplied its place. Yet before Sancho could make a
beginning, it vanished, like the former, on a signal of the
wand. Sancho was surprised at this proceeding, and looking
around him, asked if this dinner was only to show off their
sleight of hand. “My lord,” said the wand bearer, “your lord-
ship’s food must here be watched with the same care as is
customary with the governors of other islands. It is my duty
to see that the governor eats what is good and salutary, and

124 WRITING IN ENGLISH

prevent his touching whatever I imagine may be prejudicial to
his health. It was for that reason, my lord,” continued he,
“T ordered the dish of fruit to be taken away, as being too
watery, and that other dish as being too hot, and overseasoned
with spices, which are apt to provoke thirst.”

— From Don Quixote, by Cervantes.

The following anecdote of a walk with Sir Walter
Scott, contaiming both description and narration, is
an illustration of the use of the method of particulars
in writing that intermingles these two kinds of
composition :—

Everything that was beautiful and picturesque caught his
attention in an instant. I remember walking out with him
and a lady, who was staying in the house at the time, along
the sunny banks of the Tweed, toward Selkirk. It was a
bright morning, and two great and very beautiful staghounds
accompanied us in the ramble. Sir Walter pointed out the
beauties of the scene with great animation, stumping along the
little narrow path we were following, supported by a stout
stick. He had a plain Scotch bonnet on his head, and a gray
shepherd’s maade or plaid round his broad shoulders, and,
when not excited, he looked, with his somewhat heavy
features, and white, overhanging eyebrows, like a good, stout,
portly farmer. About half a mile from Abbotsford, however,
a bright, sparkling stream crossed the path on its way toward
the Tweed, forming a little still pool by the side of the road
before it took another leap down the bank; and by the side of
this pool one of the staghounds, which had run on before,
stopped for some moments to contemplate his own image in the
mirror, throwing himself into the most graceful attitude
imaginable. The dog’s proceeding immediately caught the
attention of the poet, and he turned to point it out to our fair
companion with his face all sparkling with eager admiration.
The gray eye lighted up, the heavy mouth beamed with a

CONTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS 125

bright smile, and even the stalwart figure became more erect
and stately. ‘Look at the vanity of the creature,” he cried,
“did ever lady before her looking-glass show more admiration ~
of herself than that brute?” ~

—From The Bride of Landeck, by G. P. R. James, p. 48.

II. Instances or examples. — The second method of
developing a paragraph is used when the topic is not
a single object, but a general topic or statement, such
as, Women are sometimes very brave, No person is
faultless, “Time is money,’ The recent increase in
the cost of living. Topics like these are naturally
explained or developed by giving instances or exam-
ples of what is being discussed. This method may
be used in description as in the following paragraph.
The topic is indicated in the first sentence; the other
sentences give selected instances of the fog’s being
everywhere : —

Fog everywhere. Fog up the river, where it flows among
green aits and meadows; fog down the river, where it rolls
defiled among the tiers of shipping, and the waterside pollu-
tions of a great (and dirty) city. Fog in the Essex marshes,
fog on the Kentish heights. Fog creeping into the cabooses
of collier-brigs; fog lying out on the yards and hovering in
the rigging of great ships; fog drooping on the gunwales of
barges and small boats. Fog in the eyes and throats of ancient
Greenwich pensioners, wheezing by the firesides of their wards;
fog in the stem and bow] of the afternoon pipe of the wrathful
skipper, down in his close cabin; fog cruelly pinching the toes
and fingers of his shivering little ’prentice boy on deck. Chance
people on the bridges peeping over the parapets into the nether
sky of fog, with fog all round them, as ‘if they were up in a
balloon, and hanging in the misty clouds.

— From Bleak House, by Charles Dickens, Ch. I.

126 WRITING IN ENGLISH

The method of instances or examples is occasionally
used in narration; very frequently in explanatory
paragraphs (exposition); and a good deal used in
argument, because instances of the truth of a proposi-
tion are proofs of it. Sometimes a paragraph is made
up of merely one important instance or example.

Further illustrations : —

At last I fell into some talk, at a distance, with this poor
man. First I asked him how people did thereabouts. “Alas,
sir,” says he, “almost desolate; all dead or sick. Here are
very few families in this part or in that village” — pointing at
Poplar — “ where half of them are dead already, and the rest
sick.” Then he pointed to one house: “There they are all
dead,” said he, “and the house stands open; nobody dares go
into it. A poor thief,” says he, “ ventured to steal something,
but he paid dear for his theft, for he was carried to the church-
yard too, last night.” Then he pointed to several other houses,
“There,” says he, “they are shut up; you see a watchman at
the door; and so of other houses.”

—From A Journal of the Great Plague, by Daniel Defoe.

In some respects the animals excel us. The birds have a
longer sight, besides the advantage by their wings of a higher
observatory. A cow can bid her calf, by secret signal, prob-
ably of the eye, to run away, or to lie down and hide itself.
The jockeys say of certain horses, that “they look over the

whole ground.”
— From R. W. Emerson, Essay on Manners.

His children, too, were as ragged and wild as if they
belonged to nobody. His son Rip, an urchin begotten in his
own likeness, pronfised to inherit the habits, with the old
clothes, of his father. He was generally seen trooping like a
colt at his mother’s heels, equipped in a pair of his father’s

CONTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS 127

cast-off galligaskins, which he had much ado to hold up with
one hand, as a fine lady does her train in bad weather.

— From Rip Van Winkle, by Washington Irving.

The structure of every organic being is related, in the most
essential, but often hidden manner, to that of all the other or-
ganic beings with which it comes into competition for food or
residence, or from which it has to escape, or on which it preys.
This is obvious in the structure of the teeth and talons of
the tiger; and in that of the legs and claws of the parasite
which clings to the hair on the tiger’s body. But in the beau-
-tifully plumed seed of the dandelion, and in the flattened and
fringed legs of the water beetle, the relation seems at first con-
fined to the elements of air and water. Yet the advantage of
plumed seeds, no doubt, stands in the closest relation to the
land being already thickly clothed with other plants; so that the
seeds may be widely distributed and fall on unoccupied ground.
In the water beetle, the structure of its legs, so well adapted
for diving, allows it to compete with other aquatic insects, to
hunt for its own prey, and to escape serving as prey to other

animals. ;
—From The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin.

Exercise 72. Study of paragraphs.— Write out (a) the
topic of each of the paragraphs so far quoted in this
chapter, and (b) the first and the last words of the topic
sentences.

(ce) Mention what things are siven as “instances” or
“examples.”

(d) Write also the kind of composition found in each of
the extracts (see Chapter I).

Exercise 73. Writing of paragraphs.— Develop the fol-
lowing topics or topic sentences by Siving instances or
examples : —

1. Many interesting games may be played in the sand.
2. America has already produced some excellent poets.

128 WRITING IN ENGLISH

3. Sometimes ludicrous mistakes are made through ignorance
or carelessness.

4. Swimming birds.

5. Boys’ sports are not always without danger.

6. The best fruits grow in the temperate zone.

7. Damages caused by bad roads and rough streets.

III. Comparisons or contrasts. — A third method
of working up a topic is by the use of comparisons
or contrasts; that is, by explaining the resemblance of
the topic to something else, or by showing how it is
different from something else. In each case particu-
lars and details are: given, but they are particulars
about the resemblance or the contrast. In the fol-
lowing paragraph the two parts of the valley which
is being described are made more distinct to our
minds by contrast.

During the greater part of its course the valley of Long
Whindale is tame and featureless. The hills at the lower part
are low and rounded, and the sheep and cattle pasture over
slopes unbroken either by wood or rock. The fields are bare
and close-shaven by the flocks which feed on thém; the walls
run either perpendicularly up the fells or horizontally along
them, so that, save for the wooded course of the tumbling
river and the bush-grown hedges of the road, the whole valley
looks like a green map divided by regular lines of grayish
black. But as the walker penetrates further, beyond a certain
bend which the stream makes halfway from the head of the
dale, the hills grow steeper, the breadth between them con-
tracts, the inclosure lines are broken and deflected by rocks
and patches of plantation, and the few farms stand more boldly
and conspicuously forward, each on its spur of land, looking
up to or away from the great masses of frowning crag which

CONTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS 129

close in the head of the valley, and which from the moment
they come into sight give it dignity and a wild beauty.

— From Robert Elsmere, by Mrs. Humphry Ward, Ch. I.

In the following paragraph the idea of character is
made more distinct by contrasting it with another
idea : —

There is a difference between character and reputation.
Character is what a man is; reputation is what he is thought
to be. Men of good character are generally men of good repu-
tation, but this is not always the case, as the motives and
actions of the best of men are sometimes misunderstood and
misrepresented. But it is important, above everything else,
that we be right and do right, whether our motives and actions
are properly understood and appreciated or not.

— Edmund Burke.

One form or variety of the method of contrasts is
the telling of what a thing is not, or what it is not
like. For example: —

The scene around was desolate; as far as the eye could reach
it was desolate; the bare rocks faced each other, and left a
long and wide interval of thin white sand. You might wander
on and look round and round, and peep into the crevices of the
rocks and discover nothing that acknowledged the influence of
the seasons. There was no spring, no summer, no autumn; and
the winter’s snow, that would have been lovely, fell not on
these hot rocks and scorching sands. Never morning lark had
poised himself over this desert; but the huge serpent often
hissed there beneath the talons of the vulture, and the vulture
screamed, his wings imprisoned within the coils of the

serpent.
—From The Wanderings of Cain, by S. T. Coleridge.

WRIT. IN ENG, —9Q

130 WRITING IN ENGLISH

The use of comparison is illustrated in the follow-
ing paragraphs : —

She is like some tender tree, the pride and beauty of the
grove; graceful in its form, bright in its foliage, but with the
worm preying at its heart. We find it suddenly withering,
when it should be most fresh and luxuriant. We see it droop-
ing its branches to the earth, and shedding leaf by leaf; until,
wasted and perished away, it falls, even in the stillness of the
forest; and as we muse over the beautiful ruin, we strive in
vain to recollect the blast or thunderbolt that could have smit-
ten it with decay.

— From The Broken Heart, by Washington Irving.

A principal fruit of friendship is the ease and discharge of
the fullness and swellings of the heart, which passions of all
kinds do cause and induce. We know diseases of stoppings
and suffocations are the most dangerous in the body, and it is not
otherwise in the mind; you may take sarza to open the liver,
steel to open the spleen, flower of sulphur for the lungs, casto-
reum for the brain; but no receipt openeth the heart but a
true friend, to whom you may impart griefs, joys, fears, hopes,
suspicions, counsels, and whatsoever lieth upon the heart to
oppress it, in a kind of civil shrift or confession.

— Francis Bacon, Essay on Friendship.

The method of comparisons and contrasts may be
used in any kind of composition. Further illustra-
tions : —

“Take thine eyes off the bridge,” said he, “and tell me if
thou seest anything thou dost not comprehend.” Upon looking
up, — ‘What mean,” said I, “those great flights of birds
that are perpetually hovering about the bridge, and settling
upon it from time to time? I see vultures, harpies, ravens,
cormorants, and among many other feathered creatures, several

CONTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS 131

little winged boys, that perch in great numbers upon the
middle arches.” — “ These,” said the genius, “are envy, avarice,
superstition, despair, love, with the like cares and passions

that infest human life.”
— Joseph Addison.

Nothing strikes one more, in the race of life, than to see how
many give out in the first half of the course. “Commence-
ment day” always reminds me of the start for the “ Derby,”
when the beautiful high-bred three-year-olds of the season are
brought up for trial. That day is the start, and life is the
race. ... This is the start, and here they are, — coats bright
as silk, and manes as smooth as eaw lustrale can make them.
Some of the best of the colts are pranced round, a few minutes
each, to show their paces. What is that old gentleman crying
about ? and the old lady by him, and the three girls, what are
they all covering their eyes for? Oh, that is their colt which
has just been trotted upon the stage. Do they really think
those little thin legs can do anything in such a slashing sweep-
stakes as is coming off in these next forty years?...

Fifty years. Race over. All that are on the course are
coming in ata walk; no more running. Who is ahead ? Ahead?
What! and the winning post a slab of white or gray stone
standing out from that turf where there is no more jockeying
or straining for victory! Well, the world marks their places
in its betting-book ; but be sure that these matter very little, if
they have run as well as they know how!

—From The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, by Oliver W. Holmes.
Houghton, Mifflin, and Company, by permission.

I have been up to look at the dance and supper rooms, for
the inauguration ball at the Patent Office; and I could not
help thinking what a different scene they presented to my
view awhile since, filled with a crowded mass of the worst
wounded of the war, brought in from second Bull Run, Antie-
tam, and Fredericksburg. To-night, beautiful women, per-
fumes, the violins’ sweetness, the polka, and the waltz; then

132 WRITING IN ENGLISH

the amputation, the blue face, the groan, the glassy eye of the
dying, the clotted rag, the odor of wounds and blood, and many
a mother’s son amid strangers, passing away untended there
(for the crowd of the badly hurt was great, and much for nurse
to do, and much for surgeon).

— From Specimen Days, by. Walt Whitman.
By permission.

Exercise 74. Study of paragraphs. — Write out (a) the
topic of each of the above paragraphs, (b) the kind of
composition illustrated, and (ce) the comparisons or
contrasts made or suggested.

Exercise 75. Making of paragraphs. — (a) Write brief
paragraphs from the following summaries, using the
method of comparisons or contrasts.

1. The beehive. Like a little city —the queen bee—the
young — the drones — the workers — have the bees a language’

2. Some pretend to despise what they cannot obtain. Fable of
the fox and the grapes— repeated efforts—the fox, baffled,
says at last, “They are only sour grapes, anyway.”

3. Laster. What Easter commemorates — appropriateness
of the time of year — springing up of the flowers (comparison).

4. The sunflower. Said to turn as the sun moves (compari-
son)—1ts appearance (comparison).

5. Troubles make men strong. Without the need of effort we
should never grow strong—comparison with an oak tree—
its weak beginning—the rough winds—the hot sun —the
storms —its rival trees — the strength of the great tree.

(6) When you have developed these paragraphs, give
one of them orally.

IV. Effects or results — We may develop a topic in
a fourth way, namely, by giving the effects or results
of the fact or thing used as the topic. Thus, if the

CONTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS 133

topic sentence read, ‘The Gulf Stream is of immense
importance to the civilized world,” the paragraph
might give many effects of the temperature and
course of this ocean current. The method of effects
may be used in exposition and in narration; less fre-
quently in description and argument. (For examples
of its use in description, see page 64.)
Further illustrations of this method :—

I mounted the stair. As I approached the room of which I
was in search, a vapor, deadly infectious, assailed my senses.
It resembled nothing of which I had ever before been sensible.
Many odors had been met with, even since my arrival in the
city, less supportable than this. I seemed not so much to
smell, as to taste the element that now encompassed me. I
felt as if I had inhaled a poisonous subtle fluid, whose power
instantly bereft my stomach of all vigor. Some fatal influence
seemed to seize upon my vitals, and the work of corrosion and
decomposition to be busily begun.

— From Arthur Mervyn, by Charles Brockden Brown.

When Mr. Cooper returned in 1833, without meeting any
such burst of welcome as had greeted Irving on his return the
year before; and when he began shortly thereafter to scold his
countrymen —in schoolmaster fashion—about their lapses
from good breeding, and their lack of social independence, and
their subserviency to British influences (much of which was |
solemnly true), the newspaper people lost their tempers and
abused him loudly and continuously. This was irritating to a
man who honestly believed himself better equipped to instruct
and amuse his countrymen than ever before. And the irrita-
tion put him in the mood to be watchful for fresh sources of
discontent. These came pretty abundantly when — after plant-
ing himself in his old remodeled home of Otsego Hall—there
sprung up a fierce quarrel with his village neighbors in respect

184 WRITING IN ENGLISH

to ownership of a tongue of woodland which shot into the lake,
and which had long been used as a public resort. The legal
rights were with Cooper; but popular feeling all against him.
What the people lacked in rights, they made up in abuse; and
what the author lacked in sympathy, he made up in ill temper.
The quarrel had wide echoes ; slanders and libel suits ensued ;
Cooper winning in the courts, and losing —out of court.

—From American Lands and Letters, p. 246, by Donald G. Mitchell.
Charles Scribner’s Sons, by permission.

Ambition, ruled by reason and religion, is a virtue; un-
checked and maddened by vanity and covetousness, it is a vice.
Without ambition, no great deed was ever accomplished. Itis
a guiding star to the wise and good; only a snare to the vain
and foolish. Ambition is the strongest incentive to persever-
ance, and difficulties will sink before it, where they had ap-
peared mountain high. It is ambition which keeps alive hope
and courage. Without it, man would be content to be a poor,
debased creature, allowing the powers of his brain to rest for
want of energy to cultivate and apply them. He could never
rise in his profession, having no ambition to reach its highest
point. Like every other good gift, it is the abuse, and not the
use of ambition’s fire that leads tosin. Kept within the proper
bounds, it is a noble quality, leading to perfection.

— Laurence Sterne.

V. Reasons or causes.— A fifth way of working up
a topic is to set forth reasons or causes. This method
is valuable mainly in exposition and argument. It
may well be used in writing on such topics as, The
disappearance of the North American Indian, The
benefits of giving the vote to women, The increasing
frequency of strikes, Strikes do not aid the cause of
labor.

’

CONTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS 135

Illustrations of this method :—

Let us proclaim it firmly, proclaim it even in fall and defeat,
this age is the grandest of all ages; and do you know where-
fore? Because it is the most benignant. This age, the
immediate issue of the French Revolution, and its first born,
enfranchises the slave in America, uplifts the pariahin Asia, de-
stroys the suttee in India, and extinguishes in Eurupe the last
brands of the stake, civilizes Turkey, penetrates the Koran with
the Gospel, dignifies woman, subordinates the right of the strong-
est to the right of the most just, suppresses pirates, ameliorates
penal laws, purifies the galleys, throws the bloody sword into
the gutter, condemns the death penalty, takes the chain and
ball from the foot of the convict, abolishes torture, degrades and
stigmatizes war, ...plucks out the fangs from tyrants.

— Victor Hugo.

“Therefore,” said he, “hath it with all confidence heen
ordered by the Commons of Great Britain, that I impeach
Warren Hastings of high crimes and misdemeanors. I im-
peach him in the name of the Commons House of Parliament,
whose trust he has betrayed. I impeach him in the name of
the English nation, whose ancient honor he has sullied. I im-
peach him in the name of the people of India, whose rights he
has trodden under foot, and whose country he has turned into
a desert. Lastly, in the name of human nature itself, in the
name of both sexes, in the name of every age, in the name of
every rank, I impeach the common enemy and oppressor of
all.” -

— From Macaulay’s Essay on Warren Hastings.

Exercise 76. Study of paragraphs. — After studying the
paragraphs given under Methods IV and V, write out
(a) the topic of each of the paragraphs, (6) the kind of
composition illustrated, (c) the effects, or the causes or
reasons mentioned (as the case may be).

186 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 77. Writing of paragraphs. — Write brief para-
graphs on five of the following topics, developing them by
Siving effects, or else reasons (stating which) : —

1. Outdoor games. 2. Winter the healthfullest season. 3.
The importance of forest trees. 4. The battle of Bull Run.
5. The outbreak of the Revolutionary War. 6. The drum is
indispensable in battle. 7. Waves on the seashore. 8. The
cold north wind. 9. A summer shower. 10. Life on a farm
is pleasant.

Exercise 78. Study of paragraphing. — Study the follow-
ing paragraphs, and determine what method of para-
Sraph-development is used in each case. Write your
answers.

Note. — The five methods of developing paragraphs may be
remembered by the aid of the keyword picer (particulars, in-
stances, comparisons, effects, reasons).

There were, however, several persons who gave me great di-
version on this occasion. I observed one bringing in a fardel
(burden) very carefully concealed under an old embroidered
cloak, which, upon his throwing it into the heap, I discovered to
be poverty. Another, after a great deal of puffing, threw down
his luggage, which, upon examining, I found to be his wife.

— From the Spectator Papers, by Joseph Addison.

How few men in the world are prosperous! What an infi-
nite number of slaves and beggars, of persecuted and oppressed
people, fill all corners of the earth with groans, and heaven
itself with weeping, prayers, and sad remembrances! How
many provinces and kingdoms are afflicted by a violent war, or
made desolate by popular diseases! Some whole countries are
remarked with fatal evils or periodical sicknesses. Grand
Cairo, in Egypt, feels the plague every three years returning
like a quartan ague, and destroying many thousands of per-
sons. All the inhabitants of Arabia, the desert, are in contin-
ual fear of being buried in huge heaps of sand, and therefore

CONTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS 187

dwell in tents and ambulatory houses, or retire to unfruitful
mountains, to prolong an uneasy and wilder life.

— Jeremy Taylor.

It was a lovely drive, along winding roads rich in the pic-
turesque scenes that delight beauty-loving eyes. Here an
ancient monastery, whence the solemn chanting of the monks
came down tothem. There a bare-legged shepherd, in wooden
shoes, pointed hat, and rough jacket over one shoulder, sat
piping on a stone, while his goats skipped among the rocks or
lay at his feet. Meek, moss-colored donkeys, laden with pan-
niers of freshly cut grass, passed by, with a pretty girl in a
capuline sitting between the green piles, or an old woman spin-
ning with a distaff as she went. Brown, soft-eyed children ran
out from the quaint stone hovels to offer nosegays, or bunches
of oranges still on the bough. Gnarled olive trees covered the
hills with their dusky foliage, fruit hung golden in the orchard, -
and great scarlet anemones fringed the roadside; while beyond
green slopes and craggy heights the maritime Alps rose sharp
and white against the blue Italian sky.

Valrosa well deserved its name, for, in that climate of per-
petual summer, roses blossomed everywhere. They overhung
the archway, thrust themselves between the bars of the great
gate with a sweet welcome to passers-by, and lined the avenue,
winding through lemon trees and feathery palms up to the villa
on the hill. Every shadowy nook, where seats invited one to
stop and rest, was a mass of bloom; every cool grotto had its
marble nymph smiling from a veil of flowers, and every foun-
tain reflected crimson, white, or pale pink roses, leaning down
to smile at their own beauty. Roses covered the walls of the
house, draped the cornices, climbed the pillars, and ran riot
over the balustrade of the wide terrace, whence one looked
down on the sunny Mediterranean and the white-walled city
on its shore.

— From Little Women, by Louisa M. Alcott, Ch. XXXIX.
Little, Brown, and Company, by permission.

. 138 WRITING IN ENGLISH

The river (the Oise) was swollen with the long rains.
From Vadencourt all the way to Origny it ran with ever-
quickening speed, taking fresh heart at each mile, and racing
as though it already smelt the sea. The water was yellow and
turbulent, swung with an angry eddy among half-submerged
willows, and made an angry clatter along stony shores. The
course kept turning and turning in a narrow and well-tim-
bered valley. Now the river would approach the side, and run
gliding along the chalky base of the hill, and show us a few
open colza fields among the trees. Now it would skirt the
garden walls of houses, where we might catch a glimpse
through a doorway, and see a priest pacing in the checkered ©
sunlight. Again the foliage closed so thickly in front that
there seemed to be no issue; only a thicket of willows over-
topped by elms and poplars, under which the river ran flush
and fleet, and where a kingfisher flew past like a piece of the
blue sky. .. The light sparkled golden in the dancing poplar
leaves, and brought the hills into communion with our eyes.
And all the while the river never stopped running or took
breath, and the reeds along the whole valley stood shivering
from top to toe.

* * * * * a *

The river was more dangerous here; it ran swifter, the
eddies were more sudden and violent. All the way down we
had had our fill of difficulties. Sometimes it was a weir which
could be shot, sometimes one so shallow and full of stakes that
we must withdraw the boats from the water and carry them
round. But the chief sort of obstacle was a consequence of the
late high winds. Every two or three hundred yards a tree
had fallen across the river, and usually involved more than
another in its fall. Often there was free water at the end, and
we could steer round the leafy promontory and hear the water
sucking and bubbling among the twigs. Often, again, when
the tree reached from bank to bank, there was room, by lying
close, to shoot through underneath, canoe and all. Sometimes
it was necessary to get out upon the trunk itself and pull the

CONTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS 189

boats across; and sometimes, where the stream was too impetu-
ous for this, there was nothing for it but to land and “carry
over.” This made a fine series of accidents in the day’s career,
and kept us aware of ourselves.

—From An Inland Voyage, by Robert Louis Stevenson.

Nothing in the work has astonished us so much as the igno-
rance or the carelessness of Mr. Croker with respect to facts
and dates. Many of his blunders are such as we should be
surprised to hear any well-educated gentleman commit, even in
conversation. ... In one place Mr. Croker says that at the
commencement ef the intimacy between Dr. Johnson and Mrs.
Thrale, in 1765, the lady was twenty-five years old. In other
places he says that Mrs. Thrale’s thirty-fifth year coincided
with Dr. Johnson’s seventieth. Johnson was born in 1709.
If, therefore, Mrs. Thrale’s thirty-fifth year coincided with
Johnson’s seventieth, she could have been only twenty-one
years old in 1765. This is not all. Mr. Croker, in another
place, assigns the year 1777 as the date of the complimentary
lines which Johnson made on Mrs. Thrale’s thirty-fifth birth-
day. If this date be correct, Mrs. Thrale must have been born
in 1742, and could have been only twenty-three when her ac-
quaintance with Johnson commenced. Mr. Croker, therefore, ~
gives us three different statements as to her age. Two of the
three must be incorrect.

— From Macaulay’s Review of Croker’s Boswell’s Johnson.

Neither could they, with all the skill they had, get again to
the stile that night. Wherefore, at last, lighting under a little
shelter, they sat down there till the day brake; but, being
weary, they fell asleep. Now there was, not far from the place
where they lay, a castle, called Doubting Castle, the owner
whereof was Giant Despair, and it was in his grounds they
now were sleeping; wherefore he, getting up in the morning
early, and walking up and down in his fields, caught Christian
and Hopeful asleep in his grounds. Then with a grim and surly

140 WRITING IN ENGLISH

voice he bid them awake, and asked them whence they were,
and what they did in his grounds. They told him they were
pilgrims, and- that they had lost their way. Then said the
Giant, You have this night trespassed on me by trampling in
and lying on my grounds, and therefore you must go along
with me. So they were forced to go, because he was stronger

than they.
— From The Pilgrim's Progress, by John Bunyan.

For do but consider what an excellent thing sleep is: it is
so estimable a jewel that, if a tyrant would give his crown for
an hour’s slumber, it cannot be bought; of so beautiful a shape
is it, that though a man live with an empress, his heart cannot
be at quiet till he leaves her embracements to be at rest with
the other; yea, so greatly are we indebted to this kinsman of
death, that we owe the better tributary half of our life to him;
and there is good cause why we should do so, for sleep is that
golden chain that ties health and our bodies together.

— Thomas Dekker.

Exercise 79. Topic sentences. — Write the topic sentences
of the paragraphs given in Exercise 78.

Exercise 80. Paragraph methods.—(a) By which methods
might the following topics be developed? (6) What kinds
of compositions would be theresults? Write your answers.

The game of blind man’s buff.

How to learn to skate.

The robin.

Story of a parrot.

Mistakes made by poor cooks.

Dogs are sometimes very brave and faithful.
Traveling is a source of both pleasure and profit.
The wild flowers of spring.

A cat and a mouse (narrative).

The murder of President Garfield.

SLOAN oP WN

p—

CONTENTS OF PARAGRAPHS 141

Exercise 81. Paragraph development. — Develop into
paragraphs five topics given in the last exercise, so as to
have one of each type of paragraph (p.i.c. é.7.).

Exercise 82. Writing of paragraphs. — Develop the fol-
lowing summaries, according to the methods named: —

1. Joanof Arc. A peasant girl in France — she sees strange
visions — she goes to the king — becomes leader of the armies
of France —her great victories —her capture by the English
—she is burned at the stake in Rouen. (Method of particu-
lars — narration.)

2. The blacksmith’s shop. The blacksmith—his tools —
what he is doing —the bellows, the fire, the water tub — the
sparks—the finished work. (Method of particulars — de-
scription.)

3. A friend in need is a friend indeed. A poor Swede
landed in New York, with but little money —no friends —
knew not where to go—had been cheated — suddenly hears
his name called — sees a friend of his boyhood in Sweden —
the friend takes him to his home — the Swede gets a start — be-
comes prosperous. (Method of instance or example — narration.)
~ 4, How the world seems after a long illness. As if one had
been off on a long journey —the very sky looks strange —
the people have changed — new houses have been built, etc.
(Method of comparison — description.)

5. The snow. It falls all night — is drifted in the morning
— then comes a cold snap — where the snow was blown off the
plants are frozen —the thick snow covering protects the grain
and the flowers (comparison) — when it melts in the spring
there is a freshet. (Method of effects.)

6. Take time by the forelock. Miss no opportunity — we do
not know what to-morrow may bring forth — a chance lost may
never return — the sooner we succeed, the longer we enjoy the
fruits of success. (Method of reasons.)

7. An entertainment. The audience—the music— the
dialogues —the conjurer’s tricks. (Method of particulars.)

142 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 83. Outlining. — Outline three of the para-
Sraphs given in Exercise 78; or three given in the text
of this chapter.

Exercise 84. Outline for original narration. — This ex-
ercise ts in preparation for Exercise 85. Outline the
narration there called for, by chief events, or places, or
periods, whichever method seems best; put minor topics
(subtopics) under the several head-topics. These minor
topics may be descriptive, or they may be merely details
of the narrative.

Exercise 85. Narration of invented or imaginary occur-
rences. — Write a ghost story, or a story of a boy’s struggle
for a foothold in the world, ora story of adventure or
trial of some sort. Introduce some description of persons,
and of places or objects. Follow your outline, developing
your paragraphs with care as to their topics and their
contents.

CHAPTER X
EMPHASIS IN WRITING

So far, in our study of sentence making, we have
had exercises on the various elements and the gram-
matical forms of sentences, on the securing of unity
in our sentences, and on securing clearness (see Chap-
ters IV, VI, and VIII). Now we may ask, “ Very
well, if we know how to make grammatical sentences
that have unity and clearness, what more is neces-
sary?” The answer is, that those things are very
important, — that they are more important than any-
thing else in making sentences, — and that it would be
far better not to study anything else about sentences
until we have thoroughly learned what those former
chapters teach. But if we wish to become really
skillful writers, there is something left to learn about
sentence making, even though we write and speak
correct and clear sentences. In this chapter we are
to study the simplest and most useful ways of making
emphatic what we wish to impress upon the minds
of those who read or hear what we say.

To emphasize a statement, or a part of a statement,
as a word or a phrase, means to call special attention
to it and to impress it upon the mind. The things we
say or even the words we use are not all equally im-

143

144 — WRITING IN ENGLISH

portant. So, how shall we emphasize what we think
most important? Sometimes writers, especially in
school books, emphasize words and sentences by print-
ing them in italics or in broad-faced type. But im most
writings(as you will seeby looking at magazine articles,
poems, story books, histories, and other books) the
words to be made emphatic are not printed in different
type from the rest. This is because skillful writers,
though they print all the words in the same type,
know how to make their readers feel what is meant
to be specially noticed. There are numerous ways
of’ doing this. Some of them depend upon the form
chosen for the sentence, some upon the arrangement
of the parts of the sentence, and some upon the
wording of the sentence.

a. Forms of sentences, for emphasis. — Most sen-
tences are what are called m grammar declarative
sentences, that is, they state or assert, and are closed
with a period. But many assertions may be put in
the form of a question, to which no answer is expected,
because every one knows what the answer would be;
and a question thus occurring in the midst of declar-
ative sentences arrests our attention, and becomes
more emphatic than a mere plain statement would
be. For example, —

Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right?
is much more striking than to say, —

The Judge of all the earth will do right.

EMPHASIS IN WRITING | , 145

So also the exclamatory form of sentence may be
used for emphasis. It 1s much more striking to say, —

How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood!

than to say, —
The scenes of my childhood are dear to my heart.

Hence, when you are writing a series of declara-
tive sentences and wish to call special attention to a
statement, see if it would not be emphasized if put into
the interrogative or the exclamatory form. These
forms, however, must not be used too frequently,
lest through repetition they lose their effectiveness.

Exercise 86. Transforming interrogations and exclama-
tions. — Change the following to declarative statements,
and note how much less emphatic they become when put
into the commonplace form.

1. “How!” cried the mayor, “do you think I’]] stand being
treated worse than a cook?” 2. How few men in the world
are prosperous! 3. When shall I find forgiveness for my sin ?
4, What a fool am I, to lie thus in a dungeon when I may as
well walk at liberty! 5. And as we are talking of bragging,
and I am on my travels, can I forget one mighty republic,
where people are always trying to pass off their claret for
port? 6. Nonsense,man! Why so squeamish? Do they spare
you? 7. Do these fellows never give themselves airs? 8. The
sky is changed— and such achange! 9. Shall he expire, and
unavenged ? 10. A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!
11. How they’ll greet us! 12. Has the gentleman done?
Has he completely done ?

Exercise 87. Interrogation. — Put the following decla-
rations into the interrogative form. Note that in changes
WRIT. IN ENG. —10

146 WRITING IN ENGLISH

of this kind a negative question conveys the idea of an
affirmative statement, and a question without a nega-
tive, the idea of a negative statement. Observe the in-
creased emphasis given by the interrogative form.

1. This is not your house. 2. I did not know what I was
to do. 3. The happiness of peace can nowhere on earth be
found. 4. Poor wretch, thy success will amount to nothing.
5. You cannot shut the windows of the sky. 6. There was
‘never a greater surprise. 7%. That is good news; you have not
heard better news for this month or more. 8. Assyria, Greece,
Rome, Carthage, are nothing now. 9. You would not let your
little finger ache for such as these. 10. This verse shall to
future ages tell thou wert my guide, philosopher, and friend.
11. The hardest thing we have to do is to learn to say, “I was
mistaken, and am sorry.” 12. Thy jokes, that used to set the
whole table on the roar, are no more. 13. You care littlefora
beggar’s story. It is amusing, perhaps, or you find it strange,
14. It could not be otherwise. 15. A man is not very wrong
after all for being only a man.

Exercise 88. Exclamation. — Put the following decla-
rations into the exclamatory form. In making this
change a writer may sometimes, for brevity and empha-
sis, omit the verb.

1. Their melody foretells a world of merriment. 2. Ocean,
I have loved thee much. 3. If this is Christian work, I should
like to be a slave, along with the barbarous Turk. 4. It is
sharper than a serpent’s tooth to have a thankless child.
5. Sleep is an excellent thing. 6. Ah, well-aday! I had evil
looks from old and young. 7. And see those sails, they are
very thin and sere. 8. I could willingly lay my head within
the cold grave’s silent breast. 9. Very many deeds of death-
less virtue and immortal crime would ne’er have been, had the
actor said, I will do this to-morrow. 10. I wish I could fitly
describe that scene.

EMPHASIS IN WRITING 147

Another point worth remembering about the choice
of sentence formations is that to quote directly, or
use what is called direct narration, 1s more emphatic
than to tell indirectly what a person said or thought.
When you use direct narration you give, in quotation
marks, a person’s direct language. We learned, in
studying clearness (page 115), that direct narration is
often useful in avoiding ambiguous pronouns; it is
also useful m emphasizing what some person has
said.

Study the differences in the verbs and pronouns in
the following examples of direct and indirect narra-
tion :

(a) Direct.— My old schoolmaster asked me:
‘What are you doing now, and where have you been
all these years?”

Indirect. — My old schoolmaster asked me what I
was doing, and where [ had been all these years.

(6) Direct. — Harry’s old schoolmaster asked him:
“What are you doing now, and where have you been
all these years?”

Indirect. — Harry's old schoolmaster asked him
what he was doing now, and where he had been all
these years.

(c) Direct.— Fielding says: “Without adversity
a man hardly knows whether he is honest or not.”

Indirect. — Fielding says that without adversity a
man hardly knows whether he is honest or not.

148 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 89. Indirect narration. —Chanége the follow-
ing from direct to indirect narration : —

1. Mary said to me, at last, “Say you'll let me stay and
watch you write.” 2. I said to him, “You thought I was not
comfortable.” 3. “But I shall never try any more,” said I.
4. My little boy said to me, “ Papa, what do you do all day
long while I am playing?” 5. You ask me, “What do you do
all day ?”” Why, you know very well what Ido. I heard your
mother tell you only yesterday, “He goes down town to work,
so that we may have our pleasant home.” 6. Farmer Jones
said to his neighbor Williams, “Your sheep are in my meadow,
and I wish you would get them out.”

Exercise 90. Indirect to direct narration. — In the fol-
lowing sentences change the indirect report of what was
said by any one, to the direct form. Be careful to use
quotation marks where necessary, and to begin the quoted
saying with a capital. Be sure to use pronouns and
tenses of verbs precisely as you think the speaker or writer
used them ; give his exact language as you think it was.
Note the increase in clearness and emphasis.

1. Miss Ophelia told Tom to go for the doctor, and to lose
not a moment. 2. He asked, in a low whisper, when this
change had taken place. 3. Then Hopeful asked where they
were now. 4. She asked him if he would call her a name she
wanted him to call her. 5. One day, in much good company, I
was asked whether I had seen any of their struldbrugs, or im-
mortals. 6. He told me to look no more on the bridge, but to
cast my eyes upon the thick black mist into which the tide
flowed. 7. Pope said that to err is human, to forgive divine.
8. Then the other man told his brother to be of good cheer; but
Christian answered that the sorrows of death had compassed
him about, and he should not see the land that flows with milk
and honey.

EMPHASIS IN WRITING 149

b. Order of words, for emphasis.— We have Just
seen that, when we are reading a series of declarative
sentences, our attention 1s aroused if we come upon a
question or an exclamation. ‘This is because of the
difference from the ordinary form of sentence. Now,
for much the same reason, certain words in a sen-
tence may be made emphatic by being placed out of
their ordinary or regular position. When we say,
His locks were gray, The rain came down, we use a
customary arrangement,—subject, verb, complement,
or modifier of the verb. Now reverse the order; say,
Gray were his locks, Down came the rain, and what
is the effect ? In the first sentence gray and locks are
both made emphatic, in the second sentence down
and rain are made emphatic, all for the same rea-
son: these words are in an unusual position in the
sentence.

Hence, when you wish to give to a word a special
emphasis, see if you cannot place it in an unusual,
and yet not absurd, position. If it is the subject, put
it toward or at the end of the sentence. If itisa
verb, an adverb, an object element, or a predicate
attribute, put it toward or at the beginning of the
sentence. The two most emphatic positions in the
sentence are those of the first word and the last
word. Of these the more emphatic is that of the
first word.

The unusual or inverted sentence arrangement
must, of course, not be used too frequently. It is
emphatic only when it is used occasionally.

150 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 91. Transposed or inverted order of words. -—
In the following sentences, note what words are made
emphatic by being in an unusual position, and change
the sentences into the regular or natural order.

1. Imprudent it certainly was. 2. Generously and freely did
they share with you their comforts and their homes. 3. Beau-
tiful are those lights and shadows thrown abroad among the
mountains. 4. The atrocious crime of being a young man
I shall not attempt to deny. 5. Much more is he to be ab-
horred, who has receded from virtue. 6. White as the snow
were his locks, and his cheeks as brown as the oak leaves.
7. Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto
you. 8. This is the state of man: to-day he puts forth the ten-
der leaves of hopes; to-morrow blossoms, and bears his blushing
honors thick upon him; the third day comes a frost, a killing
frost. 9. Across the ocean came a pilgrim bark, bearing the
seeds of life and death. 10. If we do not educate, short will
be our race from the cradle to the grave.

Exercise 92. Inversion. — Change from the usual order
to the emphatic order the following sentences, by placing
in emphatic positions the words which you think should
be made emphatic.

1. The church was erelong thronged with men. The
women waited without in the churchyard. 2. Then their com-
mander uprose. 3. The hope of escape was vain. 4. His
tones were deep and solemn; he spake in accents measured
and mournful. 5. I have labored among you forty years of
my life. 6. The lamps shone bright o’er fair women and
brave men. 7. I cannot do the one, and the other I will not
do. 8. War had never assumed a more splendid and imposing
aspect. 9. So he entered the Netherby hall boldly, among
bridesmen, and kinsmen, and brothers, and all. 10. Time
presses on, still on, and forever.

EMPHASIS IN WRITING 151

Another way to make words emphatic is to ar-
range the parts of a sentence, or of any compound
element in a sentence, in pairs. This is called bal-
ancing, or antithesis. It places both the ideas in con-
trast, and so makes both emphatic. The two parts
should be made similar in form.

Exercise 93. Balance and antithesis. — What words in
the following are made emphatic by contrast? In which
sentences are the balanced ideas similar, and in which
are they dissimilar?

1. The mountains look on Marathon, and Marathon looks on
the sea. 2. Let us be faithful to their rude virtues as men, and
pay due tribute to their unhappy fateasa people. 3. The style
of Dryden is capricious and varied, that of Pope cautious and
uniform. 4. Dryden is read with frequent astonishment, and
Pope with perpetual delight. 5. A professed Catholic, he im-
prisoned the Pope; a pretended patriot, he impoverished the
country. 6. With one hand he smote the house of Bourbon,
and wielded in the other the democracy of England. 7. La-
fayette lived chiefly for his own age, and chiefly for his and
our country ; but Robert Raikes has lived for all ages and all
countries. 8. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish
son is the heaviness of his mother. 9. To his equals he was con-
descending, to his inferiors kind. 10. If Swift’s life was most
wretched, I think Addison’s was most enviable.

Exercise 94. Balance and antithesis. — Make balanced
sentences on the topics suggested, emphasizing either
likenesses or contrasts. See that the parts are similar in
form of expression.

1. The stormy night— the calm morning.
2. To spend money —to save money.
3. Lincoln — Washington.

152 WRITING IN ENGLISH

4, Hamilton — Benedict Arnold.

5. The violet —the peony. ,

6. The dog — the horse.

7. Generosity — selfishness.

8. The South during the Revolution — the North.
9. The town pump— the grog shop.

0. The poetry of Longfellow — that of Scott.

Exercise 95. Balanced construction. — Make the corre-
sponding parts in the following sentences similar, so as
to make the balancing clear and pleasing.

ExamMPLes: (a) He expected a reproof, and that his mother
would punish him. (Word object balanced against clause
object.)

Improved: He expected that his mother would reprove and
punish him.

(0) He had a tall and commanding figure, and his face was
strikingly handsome. (Figure and face are balanced improp-
erly; one is an object, the other a subject.)

Improved: (make jfigure the subject in the first clause, or
make face an object in the second clause).

1. The tears gushed from his eyes, and his face was de-
prived of its color. 2. He concluded that he would return
home, and if his parents forgave him, he would live an honest
life. 3. So faithful in love, and a dauntless warrior, there was
never knight like the young Lochinvar. 4. He winds up the
ascent of the stairs, and the door of the chamber is reached.
5. We delight in the bracing air of winter, and in the summer
that is warm and bright. 6. To err is human, but forgiveness
is divine. 7. About the river of human life there is a wintry
wind, though a sunshine that is heavenly. 8. You repaid them
by fraud, oppression, and conduct that was dishonorable. 9. He
preferred a brisk walk across the green fields rather than to
ride in the cushioned carriage. 10. He believed in one’s doing

EMPHASIS IN WRITING 153

the best one knew how, and that by such a course one would
become wise and happy. 11. John was told not to venture
on that bridge, and, in fact, that he should not leave the yard.

When Patrick Henry said, “We have petitioned ;
we have remonstrated ; we have prostrated ourselves
at the foot of the throne,” he arranged his statements
in the order of their strength and proper emphasis,
beginning with the weakest statement and ending
with the strongest. If he had used a different order,
some of the strength of his utterance would be gone.
The arrangement of ideas in the order of increasing
emphasis, is called climaz.

Exercise 96. Climax.—In the following sentences
arrange the ideas in the order of climax.

1. When shall we be stronger? Will it be when we are
totally disarmed, and when a British guard shall be stationed
in every house? Will it be the next week, or the next year?
2. His death-bell is tolling, black is the bier, and the war drum
is muffled. 3. Must I observe you? Must I stand and crouch
under your testy humor? Must I budge? 4. A tory! hustle
him! a spy! away with him! a refugee! 5. If we must die,
let it be under the clear sky, by the bright waters, in noble,
honorable battle! If we must fight, let us fight for ourselves!
If we must slaughter, let us slaughter our enemies. 6. Did I
become drunk ? and squabble? swear? speak parrot? swag-
ger? 7. If you tickle us, do we not laugh? Ifyou wrong us,
shall we not revenge? If you poison us, do we not die? If
you prick us, do we not bleed? 8. To be now a sensible man,
presently a beast, and by and by a fool!

Somewhat similar to the principle of climax is that
which tells us that the clause or statement we wish

154 WRITING IN ENGLISH .

to emphasize should be placed at the end of the sen-
tence. In the following two arrangements, see how
much more emphatic the first sentence is than the
second : —

O thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou hast no name to be
known by, let us call thee devil ! — Shakspere.

O thou invisible spirit of wine, let us call thee devil, if thou
hast no name to be known by.

So in general it is much more forcible to put the
modifying phrases and clauses, as: much as possible,
toward the beginning, and so to put the main state-
ment toward or at the end. Sentences thus formed
are called suspended or periodic. It is not emphatic
to make a statement and then add modifiers. Such
a sentence is called a loose sentence. Loose sentences
are by no means always faulty, because they avoid
stiffness and the tiresomeness that would result if all
the sentences were of the suspended or periodic sort.
Besides, we may wish to emphasize a certain modifier ;
then we should place it in an emphatic position, as at
the beginning or at the end.

We should know the difference between loose and
periodic sentences, and should be able easily to change
one form into the other. Then we may choose, as we
write, which form we need to use. In general, the
periodic form, since it does not complete the main
statement until at or near the end of the sentence, is
the more emphatic; while the loose form is the more
familiar.

EMPHASIS IN WRITING 155

Exercise 97. Suspended structure. — In the following
sentences, rearrange the parts so as to make pertodic sen-
tences, or so as to place at the end what ought to be empha-
sized. Note what words are made emphatic by the
rearrangement.

1. Thou diest, and all thy goods are confiscate, if thou takest
more or less than just a pound of flesh. 2. I was ill-tempered,
too, when I spoke that. 3. The rank thistle nodded in the
wind and the wild fox dug his hole unscared not many genera-
tions ago, where you now sit, encircled with all that exalts and
embellishes civilized life. 4. The Indian hunter pursued the
panting deer, beneath the same sun that rolls over your head.
5. And here curled the smoke of peace, when the tiger strife
was over. 6. He still retained his good humor in this mansion
of distress (a prison), though denied all amusements, and even
the conveniences of life, and entirely cut off from all inter-
course with his friends. 7. He called it “seeing life” when-
ever he fell into any misery. 8. Stand here like fat oxen
waiting to be killed, if ye are beasts. Follow me if ye are
men. 9. Said John, “It is my wedding day, and if I should
dine at Edmonton and my wife should dine at Ware, all the
world would stare.” 10. Unless you are a coward, try that
again. 11. And, sir, American liberty still lives, in the strength
of its manhood, and full of its original spirit, where it raised
its first voice, and where its youth was nurtured and sustained.
12. At the head of this vanguard rode the Bishop of Avila,
upon a snow-white palfrey, followed by a long train of bare-
footed monks. 13. A woman sat, in unwomanly rags, plying
her needle and thread, with fingers weary and worn and with
eyelids heavy and red. 14. The ladies in the gallery were in
a state of uncontrollable emotion, being unaccustomed to such
displays of eloquence, excited by the solemnity of the occasion,
and perhaps not unwilling to display their taste and sensibility.
15. At the dead hour of midnight, when all was silent in the
garden, into the lock of the wicket which opened into the cas-
tle garden, the page put the key.

156 WRITING IN ENGLISH

c. Choice of words, for emphasis. — To repeat an
idea simply for the sake of filling up space, or for the
reason that one has little to say, 1s very annoying to
the reader, and very characteristic of a poor writer.
To say, “The entire gallery was all lighted with
brilliant lights, which were placed in every part of
the room,” means nothing more than that “the en-
tire gallery was brilliantly lighted.” The words
“all,” “with lights,’ “which were placed in every
part of the room,” are unnecessary — they really add
nothing to the meaning of the sentence. Such words
are said to be redundant.

Exercise 98. Redundancy. — Correct the following sen-
tences by Setting rid of all unnecessary words : —

1. He is a universal favorite among all his friends. 2. I was
called upon by a poor-looking widow woman, who visited my
office the other day. 3. There is an ample abundance of food
here, that will serve all of us plentifully. 4. He cut the grass
with a keen and sharp scythe that needed ne whetting. 5. In
this work we are necessarily forced to meet many difficult ob-
stacles that will be hard for us to overcome. 6. They often
benefit by it sometimes, for experience is the best teacher.
7. We must repeat the lesson over and over again.

The repetition of a word or of a form of expression,
however, is often very emphatic. In your writing do
not be afraid to repeat, therefore, provided you have
the intention of making something clear and em-
phatic by the repetition.

Note the strong effect produced by repetition either
of meaning or of language in the following passages:

EMPHASIS IN WRITING 157

1. They are meant for us; they can be meant for no other.
2. What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they have ?
3. Remember March, the ides of March remember! 4. No
villain regards the Sabbath. No vicious family regards the
Sabbath. No immoral community regards the Sabbath. 5. If
we wish to be free; if we mean to preserve inviolate those ines-
timable privileges for which we have been so long contending;
if we mean not basely to abandon the noble struggle in which
we have been so long engaged, we must fight! I repeat it — we
must fight! An appeal to arms and the God of Hosts is all
that is left us.

6. Work! work! work!

Till the brain begins to swim ;
Work! work! work!

Till the eyes are heavy and dim.
Seam and gusset and band,

Band and gusset and seam,
Till over the buttons I fall asleep,

And sew them on in a dream.

7. By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed,
By foreign hands thy decent limbs composed,
By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned,
By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned.

We may sometimes emphasize an idea by denying
the opposite of it. Thus, to say, “This has been no
easy task,” 1s a way of saying emphatically that the
task was difficult. It has this effect because a milder
statement than we expect attracts the attention and
vives an impression of care and accuracy, leading us
to give full weight to what 2s said. But sometimes,
of course, denying the opposite makes a statement
more cautious, and therefore less direct and emphatic.

158 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 99. Denying the opposite. — Change the fol-
lowing sentences by denying the contrary of what ts said.
Note whether the original or the changed sentence is the
more emphatic.

1. She is a lazy girl. 2. This was an event of great impor-
tance. 3. As I lay crouched in the hogshead, hearing the
soldiers near at hand, my position was uncomfortable. 4. I am
a grown man. 95. He stood still. 6. It was a very dull town
(give negative particulars). 7. Just before the storm broke
there was a great silence in the forest (mention sounds that
were not heard). 8. It was a wretched place for a little child
to be growing up (give negative particulars).

There is still another suggestion to be offered, with
regard to making ideas emphatic. It is much less
striking to say, —

He had but a wretched shelter all that stormy night;
than to say, —

He had but a thorn bush to huddle under all that stormy
night.

The reason why the latter is more emphatic, is
that the word “thorn bush” is more definite than
“shelter.” To illustrate again, “swallow-tail coat.”
is more definite than “ garment,” because a swallow-
tail coat is one particular kind of garment. Specific
words produce a vivid effect of reality, while general
words are often vague and colorless.

Exercise 100. Specific words. — In the following pairs
of words, which are the more specific terms?

1. Horse, animal. 2. Hopping, moving. 3. Purple, color.
4. Melancholy, state of feeling. 5. Reptile, snake. 6. Exer-
cise, walking. 7. Food, boiled potatoes. 8. Monarch, king.

EMPHASIS IN WRITING 159

Exercise 101. Use of specific words. — In the following
sentences substitute for the italicized words others that
are more specific. Note the increase in emphasis or
force.

1. As I saw a larger boy strike his playfellow, I was sud-
denly filled with a strong emotion. 2. Burrowing animals have
holes and creatures of the air have nests, but the Son of Man
hath not any place to rest. 3. Old age may sometimes be piti-
ful, but it cannot be so bad as certain kinds of disease or some
species of misfortune. 4. His clothes were ragged and torn
(specify the garments, with particulars). 5. He was never a
studious man; what cared he for the subjects treated of in books?
6. I had seen many wild animals, but I never before was placed
in a position so full of discomfort as this. 7. On the table
were various fruits and two or three dishes I was fondest of.
It was worth being sick three weeks to be able so to enjoy
taking food again. 8. Afterall, a writing instrument is mightier
than an instrument of battle. 9. Consider the flowers of the
surface of the earth, how they grow; they toil not, neither do
they manufacture fabrics, and yet I say unto you that no mighty
king in all his glory was ever arrayed like one of these. 10.
Men do not gather good frutts from dry and unfriendly bushes.

Exercise 102. Tabular review.— Make in the form of a
table a review of all the suggestions given in this chapter
for securing emphasis.

Exercise 103. Application of review. — Examine one
of your own compositions, and see if you can itmprove
any sentences in any of the ways named in your re-
view (Exercise 102). If you can add emphasis by rear-
rangement, by change of sentence-form, or by a better
choice of words, copy out the sentences and place the im-
proved forms beside them, thus: —

Sentences to be improved. Improved forms.

160 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 104. Review of direct narration. — Rewrite the
following passages after deciding where direct narration
might well be used. In writing direct quotations be care-
ful as to punctuation and use of capitals.

1. The countryman, who was of a goodly presence, then
came in, and it might be seen a thousand leagues off that he
was an honest, good soul. He asked which among them there
was the lord governor. The secretary answered that of course
it was he who was seated in the chair. The countryman said
he humbled himself in the governor’s presence, and kneeling
down, he begged for his hand to kiss. Sancho refused it, and
commanded him to rise and tell his business. The countryman
did so, and said he was a husbandman, a native of Miguel
Turra.

2. I asked him if he left her the four shillings, too, which he
had said was his week’s pay. He answered that he had, and
that I should hear her admit it. So he called Rachel again—
which it seems was her name—and asked her if she had
gotten the money. She said she had. He asked her how
much it was. She answered that it was four shillings and a
groat. Then praying God’s blessing upon her, he turned to go
away.

3. Now, as they came to these places, behold, the gardener
stood in the way, of whom the pilgrims asked whose goodly
vineyards and gardens those were that they saw. He answered
that they were the King’s, and were placed there for his
own delight, and also for the solace of pilgrims. So the
gardener led them into the vineyards and bade them refresh
themselves.

4. The merchant said he had a weakness for young men,
and though he knew the danger of disappointing his master,
the Pasha, he was unable to resist the young man’s supplica-
tions. So he told him to take the necklace, but demanded
that the young man promise to give whatever he, the merchant,
might ask in exchange. ‘The young man replied that he might
take his head itself if he wanted to, for he had saved his life.

EMPHASIS IN WRITING 161

Exercise 105. Review of interrogation and of exclama-
tion. — In the following passages decide which few sen-
tences might well be made interrogatory or exclamatory,
and rewrite such sentences tn the desired forms : —

1. These are the mansions of good men, he said; every island
is a paradise accommodated to its inhabitants. He thought
these were habitations worth contending for. Life, he said,
did not appear miserable, that gave me opportunities of earn-
ing such a reward. Death was not to be feared, that would
convey me to so happy an existence.

2. ‘Look for the knight in dark armor, fair Rebecca, and see
how he bears himself; for as the leader is, so will his followers
be.” “TI see him not,” said Rebecca. “He is a foul craven,”
said Ivanhoe; “it seems he blenches from the helm when the
wind blows highest.” ‘He does not blench, he does not
blench,” said Rebecca; “I see him now; he leads a body of
men close under the outer barriers.”

3. The day was made for laziness, and lying on one’s back
in green places, and staring at the sky. This was not a time
to be poring over musty books ina dark room. The idea was
monstrous.

4. “T have no power to speak, sir.” “I am astonished to see
that you are amazed at my misfortunes. It is strange to me
that you can wonder that a great man may decline.”

5. Our hearts bound to the music of the solitary cries we
hear in the mountains, to the tinkle of the gushing rills, to the
sound of their cataracts. The odors that breathe from the up-
land turf, from the rock-hung flower, from the hoary and solemn
pine, are very inspiriting. The transparent haze that is diffused
over the valleys and the lower slopes, as over a vast picture, is
very beautiful.

6. Our brethren are already in the field. There is no good
reason why we should stand here idle. We cannot wish peace
with dishonor. Life is not so dear, in my opinion, or peace so
sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery.

WRIT. IN ENG. — ll

CHAPTER XI
LETTER WRITING

WHEN we consider that, for most of us, perhaps
three fourths of the writing we do after leaving
school is in the form of letters, we ought to take es-
pecial care to learn how to write letters in proper
form and with skillful expression. Letters, of course,
may contain any of the four kinds of composition,
but usually they are occupied with description or
narration, except in certain types of business let-
ters. In the body of a letter dealing with several
topics, we should take the same care in inden-
tion for new paragraphs as in any other form of
composition.

Letters are divided into (a) social letters and (6)
business letters. The first are either informal and
personal, or formal. The difference here is that the
informal style is more familiar and easy, employing
naturally the first and second personal pronouns;
while the formal style, as used often in invitations,
acceptances, and regrets, is distant in manner, though
of course courteous, and employs the third personal
pronoun.

162

LETTER WRITING 163

I. SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE

Examples of formal notes

Mr. and Mrs. Hobart H. Vermilye request the
pleasure of Mr. Davis’s company at dinner, Wednesday,
February sixteenth, at seven o’clock.

14 Brattle Street.

Mr. Davis regrets extremely that a previous engage-
ment prevents his accepting Mr. and Mrs. Vermilye’s
kind invitation for Wednesday evening.

17 Washington Square,
February eleventh.

Will Miss Clark kindly excuse Helen’s unavoidable
- absence yesterday from school, and oblige her mother,

Kats M. Burnett.
124 West Fiftieth Street,

Wednesday morning.

It should be observed in reading these notes that
the writer begins at once what he has to say; that
the place, and, whenever necessary, the date of the
writing are put after the note, at the left; that the
day of the month is written out; that the year,
in such notes, 1s usually not mentioned ; and that pro-
nouns of the first or the second person are not used.
Notes meant to be formal must not contain any infor-
mal expressions. It is absurd to begin formally, in
the third person, and end with “Yours very truly,” or
the like. Formal notes should be so arranged that no

164 WRITING IN ENGLISH

name shall be partly on one line and partly on an-
other.

In all letters the writer should be careful to preser've
a half-inch margin at the left of each page, and should
not write anything within an inch or more of the top
of the first page; but in formal notes much more care
must be taken with regard to all margins. The
spaces left blank at the top and the bottom of the
page should be about equal.

In informal social notes or letters, the aim should
be to write easily and more or less conversationally.
It is sometimes difficult to make a careful description
or a somewhat long narrative seem easy and unstilted.
This means only that real excellence in letter writing,
as in most other efforts, is none too common. The
writer should at least, however, be able to choose the
forms of address and of closing that are fitting. You
would hardly write to a close and intimate friend
with the salutation “Dear Sir” and the ending
“Yours respectfully.” In social letters one may
choose from such forms of salutation as these: —

My dear Charles:
Dear Mother:
Dear Uncle Henry:
Dear Miss Reed:
To use “my” before “dear’’ in a salutation adds some

formality—lessens the tone of intimacy or of cor-
diality.

LETTER WRITING 165

The following are some forms of closing for social
letters : —

Cordially yours, Believe me, yours faith-
Yours most sincerely, fully,

As ever, yours, Your affectionate cousin,
Your loving son, Your loving daughter,

Whether you should sign your full name after such
forms of closing, or only your first name or a nick-
name depends, of course, upon your relation to your
correspondent. Do not write “ Yours, etc.” ;

In a social letter it is necessary to have the follow-
ing parts : —

The heading, giving place and time of writing. This
information is, except in brief informal notes (see
model below), put at the top of the letter, toward the
right. The place of writing must be given with suf-
ficient detail to enable your correspondent to address
his letter to you properly.

The salutation, to be placed a line below the head-
ing, but at the left. Examples of forms of salutation
have already been given.

The body of the letter.

The form of closing, toward, but not reaching to,
the right-hand margin, at the end of the letter.
Examples already given.

The signature.

166

WRITING IN ENGLISH

Examples of social correspondence

1. Informal note.

Drar Mrs. Patrison:

Will you have the kindness to send me, by the bearer
of this note, Lanciani’s “ Ancient Rome”? It will be
very useful to me in the preparation of my article on

Roman life. .
Sincerely yours,

2025 Seventh Avenue, — Marion S. WRIGHT.
Monday, Nov. 8.

2. A letter to a friend or relative. (Note.—As the
following letter of Rossetti’s does not illustrate the
point, it should be noted that it is always advisable
to write somewhetfe, even in a private letter, the full
name of the person to whom the letter is written.
Otherwise it may be impossible to determine after-
ward to whom the letter was written. The name
and address may well be placed at the end, to the left.)

14 Chatham Place, London,
Monday, 19 May, 18656.

My pEAR AunT CHARLOTTE:

I will certainly paint Aunt Eliza for you as soon as
she comes to town. It will not be any great tax on my
time, as a portrait is a thing needing no forethought,
and to be taken up at any moment.

If Lady Bath wishes to favor me with a visit, the
best time would be now, as I happen to have two or

LETTER WRITING 167

three things just finished, still by me—especially a
drawing from Dante’s “ Vita Nuova,” which I should
have much pleasure in showing her. It is better
worth seeing than “The Monk,” which is not yet
finished, but which I could show her also. I should

also very much like to show yow the things, if you
come with Lady Bath, supposing she is able to give
me that pleasure.

Your affectionate nephew,

D. G. RossEettt.

Exercise 106. Formal notes.—(a) Write a formal note,
inviting a friend to aluncheon. (6) Write an acceptance
of the invitation. (c) Write a note of regret in response
to an invitation to a wedding.

Exercise 107. Informal notes. —(a) Write a note, ac-
knowledging the receipt of a Christmas present. (6)
Write a note to a friend, to thank him for the use of a
book which you are returning. Mention the book by
name, and sive your opinion of it. (c) Write a note toa
friend, asking him to meet you at a certain time and
place, and stating the purpose of the meeting. (d) Write
a note introducing one of your friends to a person resid-
ins in a city which your friend is about to visit.

In addressing the envelope of a letter, observe the
following suggestions : —

1. The name of the person addressed should usu-
ally be preceded by Miss, Mrs., or Mr., as the case
may be. In addressing a minister or a doctor, use
such a form as Rev. 8. C. Burgess or Dr. Charles
Probasco. Do not give, in such cases, the last name

168 WRITING IN ENGLISH

only. In addressing lawyers and perhaps some other
classes of men, instead of Mr. before the name, Esq.
may be written after it. -The title Hon. is appropri-
ate only to a Congressman, a Judge, or other public
official. In addressing a business firm, the title
Messrs. is frequently used when the firm name in-
cludes the names of persons, as Messrs. Brown,
Johnston, and Company. Of course one would not
write ‘“ Messrs. American Book Company.”

2. The direction of the letter to street and num-
ber (when necessary), city or town, and State, should
follow below the name of the person or firm ad-
dressed, and should be placed as in the models given
on the next page. The name of the city or town
and that of the State may be written on the same
line. As a rule, the names of States should not be
abbreviated. The post office box number, if it is
necessary to use it in the address, may be placed
toward the lower left-hand corner of the envelope.
If the letter is important, the name and address of
the sender should be given on the upper left-hand
corner. In addressing a letter of mtroduction (see
Exercise 107, d), it is customary to write in the
lower left-hand part of the envelope the form of
words, “ Introducing Mr. Charles H. Smalley.”

What is written on the envelope is called the
superscription. No punctuation marks need be used
at the ends of the lines in the superscription, except
to mark abbreviations. The stamp should always be
placed in the upper right-hand corner.

LETTER WRITING 169

Examples of superscriptions

Mi Cara Widdlton
56 SHke’a Peak Avenue
Denver, Colorado

From A. B. See,
Oberlin, Ohio, U.S.A.

Mew. David Cophenfild ¥ Co.
152-154 Strand
London
6ngland

170 WRITING IN ENGLISH

II. BUSINESS LETTERS are arranged according to
the following example : —

312 Ohio Avenue,
CINCINNATI, OHIO, July 8, 1896.

Mr. Evan HARRINGTON,
12 West 2d Street, New York.

Dear Sir, — The clothing recently sent
me by you (shipped June 21) is of such inferior qual-
ity that I am unwilling to offer it to my customers.
Your house has always dealt fairly with me hereto-
fore, but I am obliged to advise you that the recent
shipment is wholly unsatisfactory, and will be laid
aside until your directions regarding it are received.
An immediate reply will be a favor to

Yours respectfully,

NicHoLAs NICKLEBY.

It will be noted that im this form of letter not
only are the parts used in the social letter given, —
the heading, the salutation, the body of the letter,
the form of closing, and the signature,—but the
name and address of the firm or person to whom the
letter is written, are placed above the salutation.
Sometimes, perhaps less formally, these are placed
after the letter, toward the left, on the lines below
the signature, as in the next following letter.

In business letters to women, whether married or
unmarried, the form of salutation is “ Dear Madam.”
To men the usual form is “ Dear Sir” or “ Dear

LETTER WRITING 171

93

Sirs.” For the latter, “Gentlemen” is sometimes
used. “Madam,” “Sir” or “Sirs” is purely formal.

Women, in signing a letter, should write in paren-
theses Mrs. or Miss, as the case may be. A married
woman, after signing her own name in full, should
add, in parentheses, Mrs., followed by her husband’s

name; thus,

Very truly yours,
Amelia J. Clark
(Mrs, John K. Clark).

Business letters should be as brief as possible, con-
sistently with clearness. A fault in the letter of Mr.
Nickleby, given above, is that he does not state what
was the matter with the clothing of which he com-
plains. Mr. Harrington would naturally have to
write a letter to inquire about this, and so time
would be lost because .of the faulty brevity in the
first letter. ,

Another important suggestion to the writer of
business letters 1s, that in replying to a letter one
should in every case state briefly the contents of
that letter. By doimg this, one not only saves the
time of one’s correspondent, but prevents misunder-
standing. It may be unnecessary to summarize the
entire letter before beginning the reply itself, but at
least the important points, or those to which the
reply is directed, should be stated. This is illus-
trated in the following letter : —

172 WRITING IN ENGLISH

1879 West 206th Street,

Cuicaao, ILuino1s, May 2, 1900.
DEAR Mapam:

In reply to your letter of April 29th, in
which you complain that the articles recently purchased by
you had not been delivered by us, and that your letter was the
second you had written to us on the subject, we beg to assure
you that no letter from you of earlier date than April 29th
has been received by us. We have lost no time in seeking to
discover the error of which you apprise us, and now have
pleasure in informing you that we have succeeded in tracing
and recovering the missing articles, which had been sent to
a wrong address. They will, we trust, reach you to-morrow.

With apologies for the much regretted delay,

. We remain truly yours,

TARQUE AND PILFORD,
Miss IsaBet C. Henry, per J. McK.
25 Irving Place, Indianapolis.

One or two other suggestions regarding business
correspondence : —

While a business letter should be brief and to the
point, it is a matter both of courtesy and of good
practice not to use clipped forms of words or sen-
tences. Avoid, therefore, abbreviations such as
“rec'd,” “yrs”; and do not omit the subjects of
your sentences, as, “ Have written to Chicago head-
quarters.”

When you reply to a letter, state the date of that
letter. Some business firms request correspondents
in replying to “refer to this letter as B 210,” or the
like. The point is to make it perfectly plain to what

LETTER WRITING 173

letter you are replymg, so that your correspondent
may easily find it in his files.

It is advisable in addressing a large office or estab-
lishment with several departments, to write a dis-
tinct letter concerning each of the unrelated matters
of your correspondence, so that each letter may be
received and filed by the proper department.

Exercise 108. Business letters.

Note. —It is of the utmost importance in business letters
that they be properly divided into paragraphs. If several
topics are to be spoken of, they should be kept perfectly dis-
tinct. The best plan is to note down the topics before writing
the letter. In replying to a letter covering two or more points,
the distinctness of these points should be recognized by the -
paragraphing.

1. Write a letter from Oliver Twist, Pawtucket, Rhode
Island, inclosing $4 to Harper and Brothers, Franklin Square,
New York, for his subscription for one year to Harper's Weekly.

2. Write a letter from Henry Esmond, applying for a posi-
tion as clerk in a bank. Age, experience, and references
should be given.

. 8. Write a letter to Edward March, publisher of the Weekly
Mirror, 17 West 31st Street, Brooklyn, New York, asking to
have the address of your paper changed. In such a letter you
must give both the old and the new address.

4, Write to the American Book Company, ordering fifty
copies of this book, inclosing a money order, and directing how
the books are to be sent, and where.

5. ‘Write an answer for the American Book Company to
the last letter.

6. Write to a gas company, inclosing their bill, with your
check for the amount, and complaining that the gas is of poor
quality.

174 - WRITING IN ENGLISH

-7 Mrs. Rebecca S. Crawley, wife of Rawdon Crawley, of
10 Poppenham Terrace, is asked by a former servant to write
a letter of recommendation. Write the letter.

8. Write a letter to your teacher, asking for a letter of
recommendation, as you are obliged to leave school, and have a
chance of employment in a situation for which you believe you
are fitted.

9. Write a letter to John Havemeyer and Co., calling their
attention to three errors in a bill recently sent you for various
purchases, and asking them to correct these errors on the
bill.

10. Write a letter to the school committee, or board of
education, asking that no school be held on the Friday after
Thanksgiving, and stating three reasons why the petition
should be granted. This letter should be signed by several
persons.

Exercise 109. Letters from outlines.— Where, in the
following letters, the matter is descriptive, take care to
introduce your own feelings and sense-tmpressions ; where
the matter is narrative, endeavor to make it interesting
by reason of the characters or situations of the persons,
and the nature of the places and incidents. Attend care-
fully to the paragraphins.

1. (From a boy on a visit in a strange city. To his parents.)

Arrived two days ago — the trip — arrival — meeting at the
station — the host’s home — went to theater the first evening
—opinion of the play —the doings of the next day — places
visited — plans — impressions of the city. .

2. (From a girl to her school friend. During summer vaca-
tion.)

Time of leaving home —the journey — description of sum-
mering place — occupations — places of interest — persons met
—plan for the remainder of summer.

3. (From a boy who has just entered into business life. To
his uncle.)

LETTER WRITING 175

How he got his position — nature of his duties — difficulties
—how he is treated — life outside of working hours — remem-
brances to uncle and family.

4, (A letter to a friend who is absent for a year in
Europe.) |

Kind of time you suppose your friend is having — how
things are going on at home — school — incidents — news about
friends — questions concerning Europe—hope for a prompt
and a long reply.

5. (A letter describing a visit to Concord, Mass.)

By train from Boston—memories of the march of the
British in 1775 — the quietness of Concord —its frame houses
and big elm trees— Emerson’s home, outside and inside —
The Wayside, once dwelt in by Hawthorne — his tower — his
walk on the piny hillside —the little schoolhouse of Bronson
Alcott — the home of Thoreau — The Old Manse — the Concord
River, the bridge, the statue commemorating the battle —
the cemetery where the famous men lie buried — reflections
about the history of this little village.

6. (From a boy, describing to a friend a recent game of base-
ball.)

The weather — the two teams — prominent members — the
beginning — description of two or three exciting times in the
game — the result.

7. (Letter describing your seeing and hearing some famous
man.)

How it came about—the crowd present—your first im-
pression — what he said —his manner — why he became famous,
as you suppose.

8. (Letter in reply to a friend who prefers living in the
country.)

Admit the advantages of the country, especially in summer
—name them — point out the advantages of the city over the
country.

9. (Letter from a man of thirty to a man he has not heard
from for fifteen years.)

176 WRITING IN ENGLISH

At school together — those old days — leaving that school
—further education — family events — first position — subse-
quent positions — travels — married ? — prospects — inquiries
about his friend.

10. (Letter describing winter, to a child who lives in south-
ern California.)

The winds—the temperature—the frozen ground —the
ice — skating — snow — sledding — other sports — effect of
winter upon health and strength — what you suppose life is
like in a climate where there is no winter.

Exercise 110. Kinds of composition.— What kinds of
composition are called for in the letters of the last exer-
cise?

Exercise 111. Outlining. — Outline in full one of the
letters in Exercise 109, with topics and subtopics
properly arranged. If necessary, correct the para-
graphing in your letter by the aid of the outline. Note
whether your own letters and those of your classmates
possess completeness, unity, and plan.

Exercise 112. Sentence-criticism. — Head over care-
fully one or more (as the teacher may direct) of the letters
writien by your classmates. Suggest in the margin cor-
rections in spelling, punctuation, and paragraphing ;
mark with “ U” sentences which you think lack unity or
contain misuse of “and”; with “Cl” sentences lacking
clearness, by reason of faulty use of pronouns or misplac-
ing of modifiers; and with “F” sentences which you
think might be made more emphatic by a rearrange-
ment or by other change in expression.

CHAPTER XII
FIGURES OF SPEECH

ALONG with the means of emphasis already treated
of in Chapter X, we should consider one more, which
is very important, the use of what are called figures
of speech. There are certain forms of expression
which may give not only emphasis, but also clearness
and beauty to what we say. Some figures, in fact,
are used merely for the sake of their beauty; but
usually they also add force to the expression of the
idea. We shall consider only a few of the commoner
and more useful figures here. A full treatment of
the subject belongs only to an advanced work on
rhetoric.

I. Simile.—If£ we wish to say that the Assyrian
enemy came down upon the city secretly and fiercely,
we may express both these ideas with vividness and
therefore with emphasis by using such a comparison
as this : —

The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold.— Byron

In this too the swiftness, devouringness of the wolflike
Assyrians, give you, on the other hand, the panic,

rout, unresistingness of the sheep.

A comparison of this sort is called a semile. It is
always plainly marked as a comparison by the use of

WRIT. IN ENG. — 12 177

178 WRITING IN ENGLISH

such words as like, as, than, resembles, etc. A simile
is not a comparison of things of the same sort, as one
man with another. Thus, the sentence, “ Napoleon
was a greater general than Cesar,” is a mere com-
parison, not a simile; or to say, “This flower looks
like a rose,” is not to use a simile. A simile, then,
is an expressed comparison between objects of different
kinds. The reason why a simile adds clearness and
vividness to our writing is that it brings up some-
thing common, familiar, or concrete to explain that
which we wish our readers to see or feel. By the
use of a simile we thus tell or hint to our readers
that what we are writing about, which perhaps they
have not seen or may not imagine vividly, is like
something they have seen, or know about, or can
picture.

A simile fully stated forms what 1s called a pro-
portion —A:B::C:D. Thus, —

Their ranks were breaking like thin clouds before a Biscay
gale,

could be stated more fully, —

As thin clouds break before a gale, so their ranks broke before
the onset of the enemy.

Note that, while a simile is a comparison between
unlike objects, yet there must of course be one or
more points of likeness, and these are precisely what
the simile brings out and emphasizes. Thus, in the
last simile quoted, in what respect were the ranks of
the defeated army like clouds? Of course not in color

FIGURES OF SPEECH 179

or texture or weight, or, in fact, in any respect except
that of helplessly breaking and yielding to a force.
A simile such as this adds not only emphasis but
clearness and beauty to the statement.

Exercise 113. Simile.— Examine the followings simi-
les, then (a) tell wherein the resemblance lies; (b) state
the simile in full, as a proportion.

1. Fret not thyself because of evil doers, for they shall be
cut down like the grass, and wither as the green herb. — Bible.
2. It seems to me those verses shine like the stars. —Thack-
‘eray. 3. Troubled thoughts filled his mind as if with a fog. —
Balzac. 4. He was carried about from place to place like a bale
of goods; he never moved, and he said nothing. 5. Mean-
while in the old State House, dim as ghosts, sat the lawgivers
of Connecticut. — Whittier. 6. If reasons were as plentiful
as blackberries, I would give no man a reason on compulsion.
—Shakspere’s Henry IV. 7. Stones and beams are hailed
down on the brave champion; he regards them no more than
if they were thistle down and feathers.— Scott. 8. Every
phrase was a calamity like the blows of a bludgeon. — Balzac.
9. The first time I read an excellent book, it is to me just as
if I had gained a new friend.— Goldsmith. 10. He received
my arguments with his mouth open, like a poorbox gaping for
half-pence, and, good or bad, he swallowed them all without
any resistance.—Colman. 11. High o’er the heads of the
others rose, with his arms uplifted, the figure of Basil the
blacksmith, as, on a stormy sea, a spar is tossed by the billows.
— Longfellow. 12. O Cassius, thou art yokéd with a lamb, that
carries anger as the flint bears fire, who, much enforcéd, shows
a hasty spark, and straight is cold again. — Shakspere’s Julius
Cesar. 13. This juggler would catch four balls in succession,
in less than a second of time, and make them revolve around
him at certain intervals, like the planets in their spheres;
would make them chase one another like sparkles of fire, or

180 WRITING IN ENGLISH

shoot up like flowers or meteors; would throw them behind
his back, and twine them round his neck like ribbons, or like
serpents. — Hazlitt.

A simile should always be chosen and -expressed
with good judgment. An inappropriate simile is
worse than none. ‘If you are describing a person
whom you do not wish to make ridiculous, it would
not be well to say that in dodging the attacks of
enemies he jumped about likea monkey. This might
be perfectly true, but the comparison would be ill
chosen.” You should also have some regard to size
and form, as well as to fittingness of suggestion.
You might well enough say, “The farmer’s cheeks
were as ruddy as rosy-cheeked apples,” but hardly
would it do to say, “ His cheeks were as ruddy as
his barn, newly painted red.”’

If you wish to make your similes pleasing, do not
make them too short and simple, or too common-
place. Such expressions as “ black as coal,” “red as
fire,’ are worn out. Longfellow does not say merely,
“Her eyes were black as berries,’ but he makes the
comparison particular and beautiful, “ Black were
her eyes as the berry that grows on the thorn by the
wayside.” The more fullness and definiteness the
better. To say “ He fled before his enemies as a leaf
before the wind,” is not so good as to say “ He fled
swiftly, blown by the blast of fate, like a dead leaf
over a frozen meadow.”

The way to make a fine simile is not by thinking
of words, but by fixing your mind upon the object,

FIGURES OF SPEECH 181

event, or person to be described, or the characteristic
to be illustrated. Ask yourself, What is this like?
and let the images come.

Exercise 114. Simile.— Work out appropriate similes
as suggested. |
1. The gates once being open, our men poured into the
town like...
2. Life bears us on like...
3. Books are to the mind what...
4. At this period of his life he enjoyed a prosperity that
was as...
5. Smoothly out of the harbor, with all sails set, the ship
came...
6. War passed over the land like . . . leaving devastation
behind it.
7. As he said this, the man’s eyes...
8. Wit, sudden gleams; kindly humor, steady glow of light.
9. I saw the moon’s bright reflection in the waters under
me, like...
10. Eloquence comes, if it comes at all, like the...

Il. Metaphor. — If, instead of saying, “She waited,
like an ill-tempered cat, to give him with her sharp
words a parting scratch as he went out,” we leave
out the words that express the comparison of the
person to a cat, and say, “She waited to give him
with her sharp words a parting scratch as he went
out,” we save time and gain emphasis by merely
suggesting the person’s likeness to a cat. In like
manner, the simile, “ Thy words are as a lamp to my
feet,” may be shortened and at the same time
strengthened by omitting “as.” Of course it is

182 WRITING IN ENGLISH

absurd to speak of words as actually scratching a
person, or of words as actually being a lamp. When
we read such an expression we understand that the
writer means to suggest a comparison. The differ-
ence between a simile and this second kind of figure,
called metaphor, is that the latter is an implied or
suggested comparison.

Exercise 115. Metaphor. — Examine each of the follow-
ing metaphors, then (a) tell wherein the resemblance
lies; (6) state the comparison in full, as a proportion.

1. “Twenty-five thousand francs!” cried César, feeling ice
in his veins instead of blood. — Balzac. 2. He was now in the
turbulent and seething city, which a modern poet has called a
vat. 3. Open that rusty door of your mouth, and make your
ugly voice walk out of it.— Colman. 4. The earth is the cup,
the sky is the cover, of the immense bounty of nature. —
Emerson. 5. Misfortune is a stepping-stone for genius, a
treasure for the skillful man, an abyss for the feeble. — Balzac.
6. Dryden’s page is a natural field, rising into inequalities
and diversified by varied vegetation; Pope’s is the velvet
lawn, shaven by the scythe, and leveled by the roller. —
Johnson. 7. I have but one lamp by which my feet are
guided, and that is the lamp of experience.—P. Henry.
8. Poverty froze the genial current of his soul. 9. Say that
Wolsey, who sounded all the depths and shoals of honor,
found thee a way, out of his wreck, to rise in. 10. His
conversation was uninteresting; it was weak water gruel
—a tame rabbit, boiled to rags, without sauce or. salt. —
Colman.

Exercise’116. Metaphors to similes.— By introducing
“like,” “as,” or other words expressing comparison,
change the metaphors quoted in Exercise 115 into
similes. Note the loss in brevity and force.

FIGURES OF SPEECH 183

Exercise 117. Similes to metaphors. — By omitting all
cxpression of the comparisons, change the similes in
Exercise 113 to metaphors. Note the greater conden-
sation, but also, in some cases, a loss in clearness.

Simile and metaphor are the two chief figures that
one should try to learn to use. It is not well to
employ many figures in one’s writing, at least not
until one is wise enough to exercise good judgment
as to the number and character of them; though of
course it is good that a writer use any kind of figure
that comes naturally to him and helps him to express
his idea or his feeling. It is, moreover, important to
be able to recognize several other figures of speech
besides simile and metaphor, so that we may enjoy
them when we meet them in reading. Some of the
additional figures which it is well to understand are
now to be briefly explained and illustrated.

III. Personification. — Sometimes we speak of
things not living as though they were alive. This
may be either because they at the time seem alive, or
because we can make the idea of them emphatic by
ascribing life to them. Thus, the idea of Rome is
made more stately and beautiful by using this figure
of personification : —

“This is Rome, that sat on her seven hills, and
from her throne of beauty ruled the world.’ —
Mitford.

Personification may merely give feeling to inani-
mate things or vegetable life, as, “The mountain
shuddered,’ “ The branches moaned in the wind ”’; or

184 WRITING IN ENGLISH

it may give to inanimate things or to plants or to
lower animals human qualities, as, “Then would the
very stones of the street rise and mutiny.” Animals
may shudder or moan, but only men can mutiny.
Personification, then, ascribes to its object qualities
of something higher than itself in the scale of being.

Exercise 118. Personification. — Examine the follow-
ing sentences for examples of personification, state why
the figure is personification, and give a reason for the
writer’s having used this figure.

1. Then, too, the old year dieth, and the forests utter
a moan. — Longfellow. 2. Hope for a season bade the
earth farewell, and Freedom shrieked when Kosciusko fell.
3. Let the dead past bury its dead. 4. Soon as the evening
shades prevail, the moon takes up the wondrous tale, and
nightly to the listening earth repeats the story of her birth. —
Addison. 5. Hear me, ye walls, that echoed to the tread of
either Brutus, once again I swear the eternal city shall be free.
— Mitford.

IV. Metonymy and synecdoche. — Personification,
like metaphor and simile, may be said to depend on
a resemblance, real or imaginary. In fact, all per-
sonifications are really metaphors. But if we say,
‘This dish is well cooked,’ we mean, the food in the
dish is well cooked. There is no resemblance between
the dish and the food, but there is so usual a con-
nection between them that we may speak of the dish
when we really mean what is in the dish. A
metonymy is the using of one word in place of another,
when the two ideas are closely and commonly con-

- FIGURES OF SPEECH 185

nected. When the connection between the two ideas
is that of part and whole, the figure is called synecdo-
che; for example, “He employs twelve hands in
his factory.”

Exercise 119. Metonymy and synecdoche. — Point out
the instances of metonymy and of synecdoche in the fol-
lowing sentences, and tell what the words used in the
figures are really substituted for, and what the connec-
tions are between the ideas.

1. No sheltering roof was nigh. 2. He wielded the scepter
for fully twenty years. 3. Do you read Shakspere? 4. He
is the worst oar in the crew. 5. She was by now a maiden of
sixteen summers. 6. The hedges are white with May. 7. All
the world looked on indifferently. 8. A fleet of twenty sail
came out of the west. 9. He is a slave to his pipe. 10. I]
have always voted for the administration.

V. Allegory.— An allegory is a series of metaphors,
or an extended comparison, forming a narrative. HEx-
amples of allegory, parable, and fable, are the follow-
ing: “I am the vine and ye are the branches,” etc.
(St. John, Chapter xv), The parable of the prodigal
son (St. Luke xv. 11-32), Bunyan’s The Pugrim’s
Progress, Aisop’s Fables.

VI. Allteration is the use of two or more promi-
nent words near together, beginning with the same
sound. This is frequent in poetry, but should be
used very sparingly in prose. Examples: “And the
sails did sigh like sedge,” “Some days must be dark
and dreary,” “Up the high hill he heaves a huge
round stone.”

186 WRITING IN ENGLISH

VII. Onomatopoeia is the use of words whose sound
suggests or imitates the meaning. Words like buzz,
hum, rustle, splash, flop, dinging, twang, clatter, and
the like, are onomatopoetic. Onomatopoeia is fre-
quently found in connection with alliteration.

Exercise 120. Criticism.— Examine carefully such of
your own or of your classmates’ written paragraphs or
longer compositions as the teacher may direct; mark in
the margin with “ F” sentences which you believe could
be made more emphatic by rearrangement or by change
of wording; and write out on a slip of paper the im-
proved forms which you think these sentences owght to
have.

Exercise 121. Figures of speech. — Look over two of
your own exercises in paragraph-writing or in longer
composition, and insert in each, in red ink, between the
lines, one or two appropriate and helpful similes or
metaphors. |

CHAPTER XIII
CHOICE OF WORDS

Most of our sentence work up to this point has

had to do with the form of the sentence as a whole,
or with the form or arrangement of the elements of
the sentence. (See the Table of Contents.) It is true
that in some cases we have considered the use of cer-
tain words, namely, conjunctives, especially and, and
the relative pronoun which. But in English the
choice of what words we shall use is a large subject,
to which whole books have been given. For the
sake of learning to write more effectively, we must
now study the subject a little further.
_ Some words and constructions ought never to be
used. It may be that the words themselves are not
good English, or that they are used in a wrong sense,
or that they are put together ungrammatically.

I. Correctness in diction and syntax.
-a. The words we speak or write should be in good
use. This means that we must avoid: —
(1) All slang and vulgar expressions, such as ain’t,
gent, pants, photo, party (for person), well posted
(for “well mformed ”’), put it through, gave himself

away, got left.
187

188 WRITING IN ENGLISH

(2) All local or provincial uses of words, such as
tote, onto, reckon (for “think”), be you (for “are
you’’), complected, like (for “as,” as in the sentences,
“ Do like I do,” “She spoke just like my mother used
to speak’; remember that when the noun or pronoun
following like is the subject of a verb, you should use
as instead of like).

(3) All obsolete or disused words, such as, verily,
methinks.

(4) All too recent or as yet unaccepted words, as
burglarize, motorneer, electrocute, suicided (verb).

(5) All words belonging only to poetry, as ere,
e’er, o'er, ne’er.

b. We must not give to words distinctly wrong
meanings. To illustrate: a place may be healthful,
a certain food may be wholesome, but neither a place
nor a food can be healthy, because it is not alive.

Exercise 122. Precision in use of words. — If you are
in any doubt as to the precise meaning of any of the fol-
lowing words, look them up in a good dictionary. The
words in these Sroups are often used incorrectly one for
another. Whether you need to look them up or not, write
sentences containing these words used correctly.

1. Accept, except (verb). 2. Balance, remainder. 3. Re-
spectively, respectfully. 4. Invention, discovery. 5. Observa-
tion, observance. 6. Affect, effect. 7. Aggravate, irritate.
8. Demean, degrade. 9. Guess, think. 10. Lie, lay. 11. Sit,
set. 12. May,can. 13. Liable, likely. 14. In,into. 15. Most,
mostly, almost. 16. Like, as. 17. Quantity, number, amount.
18. Expect, suspect, suppose. 19. Quite, rather, somewhat.
20. Propose, purpose (verb). 21. Are finished, have finished.

CHOICE OF WORDS 189

22. To find, to found. 23. I shall, I will, he shall, he will,
shall you? will you? will he? shall he? shall I? will I?
(see the following note). 24. Which, that, who, whom (see
the note below, on relative pronouns).

Note on “shall” and “will.” —In declarative sen-
tences, with the first person will expresses intention
or determination ; shall expresses merely the future
tense. With the second and third persons will ex-
presses merely the future tense, while shall ex-
presses intention or determination on the part of
the speaker.

In questions, the above uses are changed, because
of the answers expected. The word of the question
is the word of the expected answer. Thus, shall
you? (answer expected, I shall, or I shall not) has
merely the future idea; will you? asks for deter-
mined assent, the desired answer being, I will. Will
he? is merely future, asks for information. Shall
he? means “ Do you insist or intend that he shall ?”’
Will I? is usually ironical. Asked seriously, it 1s
absurd. Shall I? expresses an offer, or else a mere
question in the future tense.

The use of should and would is renerally governed
by the same rules as those for shall and will.

Note on relative pronouns.— Compare “ Young birds
that cannot fly are frequently starved to death” and
‘Young birds, which cannot fly, are frequently
starved to death.” In the former sentence the rela-—
tive clause “that cannot fly” limits the antecedent
“young birds.” That sentence does not say that all

190 WRITING IN ENGLISH

young birds are frequently starved to death, but
speaks only of those young birds that cannot fly.
But the second sentence says that young birds are
frequently starved to death, and adds the information
that young birds cannot fly. Here the relative
clause, since it introduces a new fact about the ante-
cedent, is said to be codrdinative, and may be re-
garded as parenthetical. The correct punctuation
also indicates this.

As arule the pronoun fhat is used to limit or restrict
the antecedent ; for example, in the case given, we are
not speaking of the antecedent m general (young
birds), but of a particular class of the antecedent.
To test whether a relative is used restrictively or
codrdinatively in a sentence, see whether such words
as the, that, those, that class of, those particular, can
be or are used before the antecedent; if so, the rela-
tive is restrictive. Another test is to see whether
the relative clause is equivalent to and he, and it, and
they, etc., or for he, for it, etc., or to some other clause
which adds a new statement about the antecedent.
In such cases the clause is codrdinative. To express
restriction who, whom and which are sometimes used
instead of that when it sounds better ; as when that has
already been used as an adjective or a conjunction,
or when the use of éhat would throw a preposition to
the end of the sentence with an unpleasing effect.

Exercise 123. Use of relatives who, whom, which, that. —
In the following sentences select the proper relative to
insert in each space. State whether the relative clawse

CHOICE OF WORDS 191

_ restricts the antecedent or merely adds information about
ut. Punctuate the sentences properly.

1. He is the very man ... threw the stone. 2. We should
take good care of books ... are among our best friends.
3. Grass ... stays green later in the year than most vegeta-
tion 1s a hardy plant. 4. Coal-oil lamps ... are very cheap
are now found in many houses. 5. Good shoes ... are made
of calfskin are commoner now than ever before. 6. Squirrels
... build nests of dry leaves and twigs store up nuts for win-
ter food. 7. He says that that is a statement ... you may
believe or not as you think best. 8. Alice in Wonderland ...
is called a children’s book is much read by grown people too.
9. He believed that the stories ... children read are often
the cause of a loss of time... is much to be regretted.
10. That is the Mr. Phelps ... you wanted to be introduced
to. Heisaman ... I have the highest regard and admiration
for.

Exercise 124. Use of sha// and wi/l.— In the following
sentences, choose from the words given in parentheses,
and state the reason for your choice. If either might be
wsed, state the difference in the meanings.

1. I (shall, will) see him at once, or know the reason why.
2. (Should, would) you think of going to that lecture to-day ?
3. I (will, shall) go up to the house at once and see what is
the matter. 4. He (will, shall) do as I say, never fear.
5. (Shall, will) you not remain here till I return? 6. I am
determined that this game (will, shall) be the last one I play
to-day. 7. I am now at Brampton, where I (shall, will) re-
main all summer. 8. The count came riding up, crying, “I
(will, shall) not surrender, except to death.” 9. You (will,
shall) not find it easy to hoodwink that lonely old man.
10. He replied scornfully, “ (Shall, will) I consent to such a
proposition? Never while life (will, shall) last!” 11. You
(shall, will) not have the chance to do that again, so long as I

’

192 WRITING IN ENGLISH

(shall, will) be here to prevent you. 12. He asked me if I
(would, should) have a rehearsal that day or the next. 13. Yes,
we (would, should) linger that one night till the sunrise itself
(should, would) come to bid us seek our rest. 14. We (would,
should) often remain till the stars came out. 15. You (should,
would) not say so, if you knew him better.

ec. Correctness in syntax, or grammatical construc-
tion of sentences, includes so much that only a few
important points will be considered here, and those
must be points that belong especially to the study of
composition.

1. Incorrect use of “and which.” —Since which is a
relative pronoun, it does not require a conjunction
before it, as relatives are also connectives (see page 86).
It is therefore bad grammar to use and, but, or, or
other conjunctions before which, who, or that, except
to connect two relative clauses having the same ante-
cedent. Co6rdinating conjunctions should always
connect like elements.

EXAMPLES:
Incorrect Corrected

1. He.was a man of great 1. Omit the and (comma
firmness and who never could after “ firmness”), or recast:
endure opposition. He was a man that was as firm

as he was intolerant of opposi-
tion.

2. Thisisatime not meant 2. This is a time which we
for angry disputes, but for the must not spend in angry dis-
right use of which we shall be putes, but which we must use
held accountable. rightly and wisely.

CHOICE OF WORDS

3. This time the gateman
was a man named Watty, or
who was called that by his
companions.

4, Going down the steps I
met Robert Longacre, the son
of a well-known writer, and
whom I had never been intro-
duced to.

5. I believed he had the
strength of a horse or an ox,
but which he carefully con-
cealed from me.

6. No person unable to read,
or who does not understand the
Constitution, may vote in this
State.

193

3. This time the gateman
was a man whose name was
Watty, or who was at any rate
called that by his companions;
or, This time the gateman was
a man named Watty, or known
by that nickname among his
companions.

4. Going down the steps I
met the son of a well-known
writer. It was Robert Long-
acre, a young man to whom I
had never been introduced.

5. Though he carefully con-
cealed the fact from me, I
believed he had the strength
of a horse or an ox.

6. No person who is unable
to read, or who does not un-
derstand the Constitution may
vote in this State.

2. Faults relating to possessives.— 'The possessive

case should be-used before a gerund (verbal noun) in
cases like these: “I was glad of your being able to
make the journey, but disappointed at your sister’s
having been too ill.” The use of the objective case
instead of the possessive in such sentences 1s incorrect.
For instance, to use sister in the sentence given would
make it object of at, which would be absurd. Care
must be taken also to write the possessive case cor-
rectly, particularly in case of compound expressions.
(See Appendix III, page 239; and Maxwell’s Ad-
vanced Lessons in English Grammar, §§ 201-208.)

WRIT. IN ENG. —138

194 WRITING IN ENGLISH

Exercise 125. Use of possessive case. — Correct the
errors in the following sentences, with regard to the
use, and the proper writings, of possessives.

1. I did not like him saying that before all the others.
2. My father thinks that Lyon’s and Fourpaw’s circus is better
than this coming one. 3. Is that Worcester or Webster’s dic-
tionary? 4. We are much obliged for Mr. Beeman having
acted so promptly. 5. I have read several of Tennyson and
Longfellow’s poems to-day. 6. You arriving on time was
what saved the day. 7. I found him at Howe’s and Hub-
bard’s law office. 8. As for your mother giving her consent,
that is unlikely.

3. Pronoun not agreeing with antecedent.— The
pronoun they (their, them) should generally not be
used except with a plural antecedent. If the ante
cedent is singular and the gender unknown, better use
requires that the pronoun he, not they, should be used.
Thus, instead of saying, “If any one in the room has
lost a handkerchief, they may obtain it after the.
meeting,” we should say, “he may obtain it.” We
must also observe that one, each, either, etc., are sin-
gular, not plural, and should be referred to by he,
not they. (See examples in the following exercise.)

4. Pronouns in the wrong case-form.— The follow-
ing are common errors in the forms of pronouns : —

(a) Wrong case-form in questions, as, Who did
you take me to be? Who are you making that for?

(b) Wrong case-form after prepositions or verbs,
as, Between you and I, this is not easy to understand.
He believed she and I to be against the plan. The
animal next attacked John and I.

CHOICE OF WORDS 195

(c) Wrong case-form after than or as, as, He is
three years older than me. You would rather talk
with my brother thanI.

It is to be noted that the forms of the verb fo be,
and of other verbs of being and becoming, take the
same case after as before. The subject of an infinitive
verb is put in the objective case. Zhan and as com-
pare words that are in the same case, whether nomi-
native or objective.

Exercise 126. Ungrammatical uses of pronouns. —
Correct the following, Sivin$ reasons : —

1. If either the engineer or the fireman had lost their head
one moment, there would have occurred a terrible accident.
2. No one can save their soul by good resolutions. 3. Whom
did you think I was? 4. Who do you think I saw? 5. Who
do you suppose him to be? 6. Who did you take him for?
7. Not a child should leave this room without putting on all
the wraps they have brought. 8. Has any of you people lost
their knife? 9. Mary can read as well as him. 10. The
teacher, it seems to me, would sooner promote her than I.
11. Who can we tell about it? 12. This is a pretty position
for you and [ to be in. 13. Whom do you say was elected ?
14. The thing for you and I to do, friends, is to change all
this at once. 15. Who did you say he told to go?

d. Verb with wrong number or tense.— Perhaps the
commonest example of disagreement of verb with
subject in everyday speech is he don’t (she don’t, it
don’t) for he doesn’t. Other examples of false agree-
ment are in the following exercise. With regard to
tense-forms, one should note particularly the fault of
wrongly inserting have when the sense does not

196 WRITING IN ENGLISH

require it. If you think of the imtended meaning
you will see, for example, that “I expected to have
called yesterday,’ should be “I expected to call yes-
terday.” It should be observed also that a state-
ment true for all time is put in the present tense
even when the principal verb is in a past tense;
thus, “I said that air 7s a mixture of oxygen and
nitrogen.”

Exercise 127. Verbs. — Point out the false syntax in
the following sentences: —

1. Each of those books, as Mr. Williams says, contain good
reading. 2. Neither of these pencils write well. 3. The
building with all its contents were destroyed by fire. 4. This
is not a color like scarlet or purple which tire the eyes.
5. Nothing but games and idle pursuits interest him any more.
6. Either this box or that one are worth buying at such a
price. 7. While the state of affairs are as I have described,
there suddenly appears on the scene a robber and his son, a
youth of eighteen. 8. Why is the smoking of cigars and the
drinking of beer allowed in this place? 9. Either you or I
are to stay, while Mary and you, or Mary and I, am to go.
10. If one of these chances are again presented, which happen
none too often, he or I is to start at once. 11. Our joy or our
sorrow are really due in large part to ourselves. 12. Neither
of those persons seem to be able to understand me. 13. How
high did you say the Washington monument was? 14. What
study was it you failed in? 15. The minister said that God
was no respecter of persons. 16. I never expected to have
been accused of insincerity. 17. I admit that I failed to
have proved that statement. 18. Hopkins had hoped to
have graduated this year. 19. I was not aware that this was
now your house. 20. I knew he wished to have advised me
not to have gone.

CHOICE OF WORDS 197

6. Misplacing of adverbial modifiers. — The infini-
tive verb and the particle “to” should not be sepa-
rated by an adverbial or otherelement. The placing
of adverbial modifiers with respect to the position of
the verb is a subject requiring some attention. (See
Maxwell’s Advanced Lessons in English Grammar,
article 597.) It should be particularly noted that,
while an adverb may generally precede a simple verb,
yet, when the verb is in a compound tense, the
adverb usually comes after the first auxiliary if the
verb is in the active voice, and next to the principal
verb if it is in the passive voice.

Exercise 128. Misplaced modifiers.— Rewrite the fol-
lowing sentences so as to avoid misplacing the adverbials.
In correcting these sentences care must be taken not to
put an unimportant word in an emphatic position.

1. He determined to immediately ask the teacher’s pardon.
2. We have concluded to not read it at present. 3. The
weeks in his course of study were so arranged as to each in
itself take up a certain part of the subject and complete it.
4. It is my wish to most completely repair the injury I have
done them. 5. He intended to, if possible, return without
being seen. 6. Agnes could hope now to only see her
mother once again. 7. This writing is too bad to be easily
read. 8. We shall have then been here ten days. 9. That game
easily can be learned. 10. I have very rapidly walked home.
11. He read the book that I gave him with great care. 12. He
will finish probably before dinner.

7. Grammatical incompleteness. — This is the fault
of omitting a word required for the grammatical con-
struction of a sentence. This fault nearly always

198 WRITING IN ENGLISH

springs from carelessness, but it is very common, and
the danger of falling into it should be understood.

A few examples are given in the (attempted) sen-
tences of the following exercise, which were actually
written by school children. Other sentences illus-
trating grammatical incompleteness are to be found
in Chapter VIII, on clearness, page 113.

Exercise 129. Grammatical incompleteness. — Correct
the following : —

1. He was taking a step the consequences of which he was
not quite sure. 2. Taking, for example, the Greeks at the
beginning of their history were fond of hearing and repeating
fables. 3. He made it a practice to experiment with all he
came into contact. 4. If we take, for instance, a child coming
late to school is made to stay after the others have gone home.
5. On the other hand if we could learn by the experience of
others (as by reading and observing) and start our lives with
this knowledge, as a child of to-day accepts the automobile, the
steam engine, and the telephone without inquiring how these
came to be. 6. You now pass from the condition you are in
less time than it takes to tell it. 7. By charity I understand
that not to give money always, but to give attention and sym-
pathy when we find a chance.

II. Skillful choice in diction.

If the words given in pairs in Exercise 122, near
the beginning of this chapter, are used wrongly, one
for the other, it is simply a blunder due to ignorance.
But there are in the English language many word-
groups, in each of which the meanings are so nearly
the same that in many cases one of the words or
expressions would be quite as correct as another. Is

CHOICE OF WORDS 199

there any difference, for example, between begin and
commence? But even among such words there is
usually, for each particular case, a best word. We
must, therefore, try to learn how to choose words
with accuracy and good judgment. We learn to do
this mainly by much reading of well-written books ;
in that way we gradually come to feel how certain
words or kinds of words ought to be used. The
English language, containing as it does words from
many other tongues (see Appendix II), is so rich in
words, that one might be learning new uses or even
new expressions all one’s life.

Words having nearly the same meaning are called
synonyms. In reality, as has been said, there 1s always
a choice among synonyms. One word may be more
agreeable in sound than any of its synonyms; or more
specific, or more emphatic. . Sometimes synonyms
differ in the degrees or intensities of the idea they
express, as, grateful, pleasing, refreshing, delightful,
intoxicating. It is in choosing among such words
that care is especially needed. There are persons
to whom everything they like, from soda water to
scenery, is “lovely,” or “elegant,” or “so nice” ;
and to whom’ whatever they dislike is “horrid” or
“perfectly awful” or “ fierce.”

The usual reason, however, for distinctions among
synonyms, is that the words have come, in the
course of time, to be used most appropriately in
certain connections. Thus, sincere, honest, genuine,
real, all have an element of common meaning,

200 WRITING IN ENGLISH

yet each has its own proper use. Should one
say genuine sympathy, or sincere sympathy ; honest
-Indignation or real indignation? Or, compare the
words: old, aged, ancient, antiquated, venerable. Of
these old has the widest range of use, but it implies
a less amount of duration than ancient; aged is
applied mostly to living beings; venerable suggests
the admirable qualities of age, while antiquated
means old fashioned, out of date, obsolete, of less
value than formerly.

For the proper study of words each pupil should
have a dictionary and a book containing lists of
synonyms. There should also be in the schoolroom
an unabridged dictionary, a large standard book on
synonyms, and a copy of Roget's Thesaurus of
English Words.

Exercise 130. Choice of words. — Select adjectives of
praise or commendation to be applied fitly to the fol-
lowing nouns :—

Sunset, book, roast of beef, opinion, distinction, sentence,
soup, apple, lady, essay, preacher, character, disposition, bou-
quet, vase, picnic, journey, hat, bonnet, party, weather, moun-
tain, violin playing.

Exercise 131. Use of synonyms.— Concerning the
following words consult a dictionary, or a good book of
synonyms. Select from each group, first, the word that
- has the widest use; then. write a sentence containing tt,
and other sentences containing the other words of the
group, so as to show the accurate use of each word.

1. Gruff, ill natured, sullen, sour, surly, gloomy.
2. Glad, happy, jolly, joyful, pleased, blessed.

%

CHOICE OF WORDS 201

3. Warm, hearty, genial, cordial, ardent.

4, Close, sultry, stifling, suffocating, oppressive, stuffy.

5. Plentiful, abundant, adequate, sufficient, generous, lavish,
ample.

6. Destroy, abolish, exterminate, obliterate, ruin, wipe out,
annul.

7. Wrath, anger, rage, resentment, indignation, exasper-
ation.

8. Try, attempt, endeavor, strive, undertake, essay.

9. Character, reputation, temper, temperament, disposition,
constitution.

10. Charity, compassion, pity, mercy, kindness, goodwill,
benevolence, benignity, sympathy.

Exercise 132. Synonyms.— Make lists of four or more
synonyms for each of the following words, and be ready
to use each of your words accurately in a sentence: —

1. Brave. 2. Convince. 3. Clear. 4. Injury. 5. Diffi-
cult. 6. Sorrow. 7. Gleam. 8. Answer. 9. Haughty.
10. Baffle.

Exercise 133. Choice of synonyms. — In the follow-
ing passages select from the words given in parentheses
the word you think fittest for the place. In doing this
consider the sound of the word as well as its accurate
meaning. |

1. In a (moment, instant, second) all was again (silenced,
still, hushed). Dead (noiselessness, silence, quiet, stillness)
succeeded the (roar, bellow, growl, noise, reverberation) of the
thunder, the (howl, roar, rush, noise) of the waters, the (groan-
ing, howling, moaning, outcry, yelling) of the beasts, the (twit-
tering, chattering, screaming, outcry) of the birds. Nothing
was heard save the (dash, splash, plash, beating) of the (agi-
tated, troubled, disturbed, roughened) lake, as it beat up
against the black rocks which girt it in.

202 WRITING IN ENGLISH

2. Not long since, a gentleman was (journeying, traveling)
in one of the counties of Virginia, and about the close of the
day stopped at a (hotel, inn, public house) to (get, have, obtain,
procure) (supper, an evening meal, refreshment, food) and
(spend, pass) the night. He had been there but a (little, short,
inconsiderable) time, before an (aged, old, ancient) man alighted
from his gig, with the (obvious, evident, apparent, seeming)
(purpose, design, intention) of becoming his fellow guest at
the same house.

3. Urge every (person, body, one) within reach of your
influence to be always (neat, nice, trim, tidy, spruce) and
(cleanly, clean, spotless), and give (them, him) means of being
so. In so far as they (entirely, wholly, absolutely, positively)
refuse, you must (abandon, leave off, give up, relinquish, cease)
the effort, with (respect, regard) to them, only (seeing, looking
out, taking care) that no children within your sphere of influ-
ence shall any more be (reared, raised, brought up) with such
(customs, habits); and that every person who (is willing, con-
sents, agrees, endeavors) to dress with (care, propriety) shall
have (assistance, help, encouragement) to do so.

4. And, (indeed, in fact, in truth, to be sure, certainly,) if
there were to be any (difference, distinction, unlikeness, dis-
similarity) between a girl’s education and a boy’s, I .(should,
would) say that of the two the girl should be earlier (taken,
introduced, led, started), as her (mind, intellect, brain, power
of thought) ripens faster, into (profound, deep) and (grave,
solemn, serious, great) subjects.

5. The (cliff, bluff, precipice) called “Starved Rock,” now
(shown, pointed out, indicated) to travelers as the (main, great,
chief, most striking) natural (curiosity, formation) of the
(region, district, section, vicinity, place,) (rises, ascends, stands
up) (steep, sheer, abrupt) on three sides as a castle wall, to the
height of a hundred and twenty-five feet above the (water,
stream, river). In front, it overhangs the water that (laves.
laps, washes) its (foot, base); its western (crest, summit, brow)
looks down on the (tips, tops, heads) of the forest trees below,

CHOICE OF WORDS 208

and on the east (lies, extends, spreads, reaches out) a wide
gorge, or ravine, (choked, stuffed, filled, piled) with the (mixed,
mingled,‘ various) foliage of oaks, walnuts, and elms; while in
its (rugged, rough, stony, rocky, jagged) depths a little (stream,
rivulet, brook, creek) creeps down to mingle with the river.

III. Suggestion in words.— Most words are mere
matter-of-fact words, that is, they convey an idea
without suggesting anything of pleasure or of dis-
pleasure connected with it. ‘Little valley” is about
the same in meaning as “dell” or “dale,” but the
latter words are, by reason of their history or use,
poetic, full of pleasant suggestion, while “ little val-
ley’ is a plain and, as we say, colorless expression.
Scientific books, and most school books, are written
usually in plain, everyday English, for in them the
object is merely clear explanation. But writing that
is intended to give pleasure is full of color, warmth,
imagination, suggestion, or, in one word, feeling.

We have already learned in studying description
(Chapter V) how important it 1s to express the sense-
impressions and the feelings that the thing or person
described produces in us. We have also learned (in
Chapter X) that specific words are more emphatic
and lively than general words; this is because spe-
cific words usually suggest more than general words.
Thus, “dale” is a particular kind of valley. The
more general term suggests less. In the same way,
when we see the word “plant,” less is suggested to
us, we see less and feel less, than when we see the
word ‘ rosebush.”

204 WRITING IN ENGLISH

In the following selections note the words that are
printed in italics. They are not plain, colorless, un-
suggestive words, but they express some sort of feel-
ing, either pleasurable or the opposite.

‘And soon the dappled softening sky gave some earnest of its
mood; for a brisk south wind arose, and the blessed rain came
driving; cold, indeed, yet most refreshing to the skin, all
parched with snow, and the eyeballs so long dazzled.” — Black-
more, Lorna Doone.

“ Here comes a big, rough dog, a countryman’s dog in search
of his master, smelling at everybody’s heels, and touching little
Annie’s hand with his cold nose, but hurrying away, though
she would fain have patted him.— Hawthorne, Twice-Told
Tales.

“Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather behold the
gorgeous ensign of the Republic, now known and honored
throughout the earth, still full high advanced, its arms and
trophies streaming in their original luster, not a stripe erased
or polluted, not a single star obscured.” — Webster, Speech in
Reply to Hayne.

“There is certainly some chill and arid knowledge to be
found upon the summits of formal and laborious science; but
it is all round about you, and for the trouble of looking, that
you will acquire the warm and palpitating facts of life.” —
Stevenson, Virginibus Puerisque.

Suppose we try to put this last statement into
plain and unsuggestive language. It would become
something like this, “ There is certainly some merely
intellectual knowledge to be found in the study of
science ; but everywhere and without study are to be
acquired the facts of human life.”

CHOICE OF WORDS 205

Exercise 134. Suggestive use of words. — In the fol-
lowing groups, select the words that are suggestive,
agreeably or disagreeably, and write sentences contain-
ing such words. State also which words are plain and
matter-of-fact. |

1. Walked, limped, skipped, hobbled, moved, hurried.

2. Touch, caress, fondle, pet, handle, seize.

3. High, lofty, tall, commanding, noble, grand, stupendous,
impressive.

4. Small, inconsiderable, petty, mean, contemptible, deli-
cate, fine, minute, tiny.

5. Looked, gazed, stared, glared, glowered, observed, beamed.

6. Green, verdant, emerald, fresh, succulent, juicy.

7. Smell, sniff, odor, fragrance, aroma, stench.

8. Unlighted, dark, dismal, gloomy, darksome, dim, obscure,
shady.

9. Large, extensive, vast, great, limitless, tremendous, enor-
mous, immense, overwhelming.

10. Dry, waterless, arid, parched, moistureless, juiceless, sere.

Exercise 135. Suggestive use of adjectives. — Such ad-
jectives as the following were doubtless originally ap-
plied to objects known through the senses. But they
can be applied, suggestively, to states of the mind or
feelings, or to character or some abstract idea. Write
sentences containing these adjectives so applied.

1. Dull. 2. Keen. 3. Bright. 4. Narrow. 5. High.
6. Fine. 7. Hazy. 8. Sweet. 9. Hard. 10. White.
11. Black. 12. Solid. 13. Hollow 14. Cold. 15. Luke-
warm.

Exercise 136. Criticism of composition. — Look over one
or more of the letters recently written by you, and re-
write, substituting, wherever it ts possible, more accurate
or more suggestive words in place of those you have used.

CHAPTER XIV
EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT

WE have heretofore been mainly concerned with
description and narration, as those are the commoner
kinds of composition, and require less study or prep-
aration of material than the kinds we are now to
consider. Before we can write an exposition of a
subject or enter into an argument, we ought to do
either some reading or some thinking, and usually
both.

I. Exposition. — The object in exposition is to
explain a subject clearly, and as satisfactorily and
fully as our space admits, or as suits our purpose. If
possible, we ought also to make our treatment of the
subject not dry and merely matter-of-fact, but some-
what interesting and entertaining. This may be done
by a suggestive and pleasing choice of words, and by
sprinkling a few ideas and observations amid the
facts presented.

In preparing for an exposition, we need to get
abundant information on the subject. This we may
get in several ways : —

1. By thinking, 3. By conversations,
2. By observation, 4. By reading.
206

' EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT 207

“ But,’ you may ask, “how can one get informa-
tion just by thinking over a subject?’’ It may be
admitted that thinking does not of itself give us
information, but that we should think about our
subjects for exposition is so important that thinking
should be put first of all. We cannot know what
to look for in our reading unless we have thought
enough about the subject to have discovered certain
questions that need to be answered.

For expositions, since they aim at explaining a
subject, will have to answer for the reader all his
reasonable questions. In most expositions, these

questions are apt to be such as the followimg : —

What is the meaning or definition of the subject ?
What kinds of it are there ?

Where does it come from ?

How is it made? or how does it grow?

What are the parts of it?

What are the uses of it?

What are its effects or influences ?

TTS Oe oo bo

In writing expositions we must carefully plan out
the composition in advance, making sure that what
we say shall have completeness and unity. If you
went to hear a lecture on “ Cricket,” and the speaker
should tell about the porularity of the game in Eng-
land, the origin of it, and the way it was formerly
played, and then should praise it as a better game
than baseball, but should omit to explain how a
game of cricket is played, you would feel dissatis-

208 WRITING IN ENGLISH

fied and think that the lecture lacked completeness,
and that the talk about baseball could be spared, to
the advantage of unity.

Exercise 137. Outlining for exposition. — Without read-
ing or talking on any of the following subjects, think
out and write down for each one in the form of an
outline the topics you think should be included in
an exposition. . .

1. The making of pottery. 2. The making of bricks.
3. Honey. 4. Yellow paint (ochre). 5. Olive oil. 6. Rai-
sins. 7. Coffee. 8. Good roads. 9. Coal. 10. Gunpowder.
11. How to raise tomato plants. 12. Use of bicycles in
war. 13. Bookbinding. 14. How thermometers are made.
15. Stamp collecting. 16. Cider. 17. Beer. 18. Maple ©
syrup. 19. Weather forecasting. 20. Ants.

Exercise 138. Writing of expository. paragraphs. — On
each of the following topics write a paragraph. Under-
score the topic sentence.

1. Danger of too little exercise, — effect on digestion —on
the blood — on the circulation — on the ‘brain.

2. Effects of a warm climate, — makes men lazy —much
sleep — little brain work — no need of energetic work.

3. Learning to skate, — first efforts — difficulties — how to
overcome them — cautions.

4. Disadvantages of large classes in school, —bad air—
tendency to noise and inattention — teacher has too many to
look after— each pupil receives less attention than in a small
class.

5. Causes of the Spanish-American war, — the situation in
Cuba — our commerce with Cuba — the feelings of the Ameri-
can people—the blowing up of the Maine —the political
reasons.

EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT 209

Exercise 139. Writing of expositions. — Prepare for a
thorough and interesting exposition of one of the sub-
jects given in Exercise 137, and make a complete out-
line. Write the composition, aiming at clearness and
skillful choice of words. Avoid arguing; simply ex-
plain the subject. Later, write as many other expo-
sitions as the teacher may direct. There are some
additional subjects given at the end of Chapter I.

Il. Argument. — In argument, the sulyect, if fully
stated, must always be a sentence, because, for stating
a truth or an untruth, a proposition is required. We
must aim, in arguing, at clearness, but of course the
main thing 1s convincingness. We wish, therefore, to
get all the arguments we can that support our side
of the question, and to weaken or overthrow all the
arguments of our opponents.

There are several important matters to be kept in
mind when we are preparing an argument : —

1. The subject must be clearly stated; and the
meaning of it, and the words used in it, must be
agreed upon, or made perfectly plain by definition.
It 1s too common to see the opponents in debates
argue about entirely different questions.

2. Do not waste time over unimportant matters ;
strike at the main points.

3. Remember that your opponent, real or imagi-
nary, has arguments for his side of the question.
You cannot ignore these. If you do, it will look as
if you could not answer them. If you do not know
what is to be said, or may be said, on the other side

WRIT. IN ENG. —14

/

210 WRITING IN ENGLISH

of the question, you should devote some of your time
to thinking and reading on that side. Answering
your opponents’ arguments is called refutation.

4. In writing or delivering your argument, it is
well to adopt a courteous tone toward your adversary,
and to be considerate and even complimentary toward
your audience. Do not forget that you are trying,
not only to convince the minds of the audience, but
to persuade them to feel about the subject as you do.

The first great step in outliming or planning an
argument is to divide the subject into two, three, or
four main questions or aspects. Thus, if the subject
is, —

Should women be granted the right to vote ?

you might consider the arguments under these
heads : —

1. The justice of granting the suffrage to women.
2. The wisdom of it.
Or if the subject is, —

The sale of intoxicating liquors should be prohibited,

and you are on the negative or. denying side, you
might take for main divisions : —

1. Is prohibition desirable ?
2. Is it wise?
3. Is it possible? (or practicable ?)

Exercise 140. Division of argument. — In a way simi-
lar to that just described, suggest main heads for the
discussion of the following questions : —

EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT 211

The spelling of English words should be reformed.
Hawthorne was a greater writer than Irving.
Examinations should be abolished.
Young persons should not read the newspapers.
French and German should not be taught in American
schools.
6. Washington was not so great a man as Lincoln.
7. Writers are more useful than inventors.
8. Winter is to be preferred to summer.
9. The Spanish-American war should have been prevented.
10. Novel reading is a waste of time.
11. The observance of the Sabbath should be compulsory.
12. A man should always vote with his party.

PON Pe

on

We must in an argument try to get all the proofs
we can. Proofs may be divided into three kinds or
classes, the knowing of which will help us strengthen
our argument : —

1. Proofs from what might naturally be expected.

2. Proofs from observation or general knowledge.

3. Proofs from the experience or the opinions of
others.

All these may be (a) direct proofs, supporting our
own side of the question, or (b) indirect proofs, weak-
ening or overthrowing our opponents’ side. Of the
three classes of proofs just mentioned, the first 1s
of course the least convincing. The second form of
proof becomes more convincing in proportion to the
carefulness of the observation recorded and the gen-
eral acceptance of the knowledge stated. The third
form of proof depends for its validity on the thorough-

212 WRITING IN ENGLISH

ness with which evidence has been tested and the repu-
tation and authority of the persons whose opinions
are quoted.

Exercise 141. Kinds of proofs. — In the following
cases tell what kind of proof each one is:—

(a) Subject, A killed B. 1. A was a man of bad and des-
perate character. 2. A blood-stained knife was found in his
room. 3. The effort to show that A staid at home on the
night of the murder fails. 4. He had been known as an
enemy of B. 5. After the murder, A was observed to have
more money to spend than before.

(0) Subject, Is the United States as great a nation as England?
1. The purpose of our forefathers was to secure and establish
freedom. 2. The territorial growth of the United States and
its increase in wealth and population. 3. The noble history
of England. 4. Unjustly privileged land-holding classes in
England. 5. The thousands of the poor and degraded in
London. 6. The alleged greater purity of English politics.
7. The negro population in America. 8. England’s great
colonies. 9. Lincoln’s opinion of the American government.
10. Dickens’s opinion (in American Notes). 11. Lawless
regions in the United States.

When we have undertaken an argument, we should,
after stating our main divisions of the whole, set to
work to think out, or else get from reading, proofs
of all the three classes above named, including those
supporting our side and those against the other side.
All these proofs should be arranged under the main
heads, and there we have our outline, or, as if 1s often
called in argumentation, our brief. For example : —

EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT 213

Brief on the subject, Composition is a more impor-
tant study than arithmetic : —

I. Introduction

(a) Meaning of composition and arithmetic
(6) Meaning of “important ”
- (c) Division of subject (see a and b under dis-
cussion)

II. Discussion

(a) Composition is more important in school
than arithmetic is.

1. Writing is necessary in most other
school studies.

2. Oral recitation, which is a form
of composition, is necessary in all
school studies.

3. Composition work trains us how to
think and reason; this is valu-
able for all school work.

4. Arithmetic is mostly a matter of

_ memory and practice.

5. Composition work leads us to under-
stand, consider, and appreciate all
we read in school.

(5) Composition is more important out of
school than arithmetic is.
1. It is natural to expect this, because
in life we do so much more read-
ing and writing than figuring.

214 WRITING IN ENGLISH

2. To be able to write well is impor-
tant in more occupations than to
be able to compute.

3. All but the simpler kinds of arith-
metical work are never used after
one leaves school.

4. There is a great demand from busi-
ness men for assistants who can
write good English.

5. In later life it is important to be
able to win people to one’s ideas
by writing or talking well.

6. We may derive much pleasure from
good writing and the appreciation
of good reading.

7. The opinion of ... and ;:..on
this question.

III. Conclusion

(a) Summing up of the arguments
(6) Statement of the conclusion _,

Exercise 142. Preparation of brief. — Following more
or less the plan just given, prepare a full outline or
brief on one side of one of the subjects Siven in Exer-
cise 140 or at the end of Chapter I.

Exercise 143. Written argument. — From the brief
called for in Exercise 142, or from a brief on some
other question than the one formerly selected, write out
the argument in full, in the form of a speech. In
doing this, bear in mind what is said on page 211,
about how to.make arguments strong. If you quote

EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT 215

opinions, let them be those of persons regarded as au-
thorities; if you offer as facts statements not of your
oun knowledge, try to ascertain, and to convince your
readers or hearers, that the statements are true.

Exercise 144. Criticism. — 4fter completing the ar-
gument called for in the last exercise, criticise it, sen-
tence by sentence, with regard to clearness, unity, and
paragraphing.

Any superfluous “ands” ?

Any sentence containing unconnected ideas ?

Any faulty use of pronouns ?

Any misplacing of modifiers ?

Any paragraphs without definite topic and unity ?

a od

Exercise 145. Criticism.— Wow read critically the
essay again, this time with respect to emphasis and
choice of words.

1. Any opportunity for interrogation, exclamation, or direct
quotation ?

2. Any need of repetition of a word, or any place for cut-
ting out unnecessary words ?

3. Any opportunity to change to order of climax or of peri-
odic sentence ?

4. Any chance to introduce simile or metaphor ?

5. Any possible improvement in choice of words, so as to
use more accurate, specific, emphatic, or suggestive terms ?

Exercise 146. Oral debate. — Let the class choose sides
on some question for debate, then let each member of
the class collect arguments for his side and arrange
them in a brief. Let the class on the appointed day ©
form itself into a debating society, elect a president
and a secretary, and debate the question, all speaking
in turn. The teacher is to decide which side wins.

APPENDIX I

MARKS FOR USE IN CRITICISM OF COMPOSITIONS

Notr.—Some of these marks relate to general faults, and some to
very specific ones. The teacher will, of course, use such of the marks
as he believes most suitable, and will add others if the need for them
appears.

Both the outline and the composition should be criticised.

To show that a marginal criticism refers to some special word or words,
the latter may be underlined or marked out or inclosed in brackets. It is
often well to let the pupil find out for himself what word in the line is,
for example, misspelled.

Two or more of the marks may be combined, as, O inc, outline incom-
plete ; U ns, lack of unity, divide into shorter sentences.

ab Abrupt; lack of introductory words, or sudden change
of subject without making connection.

ad Adjective wrongly used for adverb, or adverb for adjec-
tive. (After verbs of being, or becoming, or seeming,
the adjective is correct, as it describes the subject and .
does not limit the verb; as, She is looking beautiful
to-night.)

agr Agreement faulty, either of verb and subject, or of pro-
noun and antecedent.

amb Ambiguous; word or expression may be understood in
two ways. (As, We saw certain signs of a storm.
Here certain may mean some, or sure, unmistakable.)

arr Arrangement faulty, causing either lack of clearness or

_ lack of emphasis (as by climax or suspended construc-

tion; see Chapter X, on emphasis).

c Capital required, or capital wrongly used (see Appendix
TIT).

217

218

ch

cl

excl

ern
grt
inc

APPENDIX I

Choice of word poor; word not accurately used, or
weak (trite, too general, or unsuggestive; see Chapter
XITI).

Lack of clearness; from faulty use of pronoun, from
faulty arrangement, from omission of necessary word
or words, or from confusion of ideas.

Condense; cut out unnecessary words, phrases, or even
sentences. | ;

Connective ill chosen; avoid the “and” habit; study the
table of conjunctions, page 85.

Improper change of construction ;-in using contrasting
or added clauses or phrases, seek to make the expres-
sions similar (see page 151).

Combine or recast into a complex sentence.

Diction faulty ; no such word, consult the dictionary.

Lack of euphony; combination of words disagreeable to
the ear.

Transform the sentence into the exclamatory form, or
back into the declarative.

Lack of force, due to weak arrangement or poor choice
of expression. .

Bad grammar, disagreement in number.

Bad grammar, wrong tense of verb used.

Incomplete; necessary part of sentence, or of entire com-
position, or of outline, omitted.

intrg Recast the sentence into the interrogatory form, or back

into the declarative. .

Margin not properly looked after.

Misstatement of fact.

Lack of neatness.

Put a period, and begin a new sentence.

Bad punctuation. Study the rules for punctuation given
in Appendix III.

Use the plural, or change to the singular.

Position wrong; word too far removed from its modifier ;
or word inisplaced that should be in emphatic posi-

poss

om

MARKS FOR CRITICISM 219

tion, that is, at the beginning or at the end of the
sentence.

Use the possessive case; spell it correctly (see Appendix
III for rules for writing the possessive case of nouns,
page 239).

Outline faulty, disorderly, incomplete, or badly arranged.

Outline not followed in the composition. The topics of
the outline should be taken up in their proper order,
and the composition paragraphed according to the
plan of the outline.

Omission of necessary word or words. In the writing
opposite this mark the teacher or critic may place a

caret (,) where the omission has occurred.

Use direct quotation for emphasis, and punctuate the
sentence accordingly (see Appendix III, page 236).
Redundancy; use of superfluous words or repetition of

idea.

Reference not clear. This may be true of a pronoun, a
participle, an adjective, or any other modifier.

Repetition bad; find synonym or change the expression.

Repetition good ; repeat word or expression for clearness
or emphasis.

Relative pronoun wrongly chosen ; restrictive for codr-
dinative, or the reverse, or change of pronoun re-
quired by euphony (see page 190).

Rewrite; recast the sentence, or rewrite the entire com-
position, according to the position of the mark.

Bad spelling.

Use a simile or a metaphor to explain or emphasize your
idea.

Use simple sentence; recast, condense, or combine into a
simple sentence.

Subdivide the topic; give the points it includes.

Topic of this paragraph not clear. Make it so; intro-
duce, if necessary, a topic sentence.

Transpose.

8
(-)
©

X
?
/

APPENDIX I

Unity violated. Sentence contains unrelated ideas or
too many ideas; or paragraph does not have unity.

Paragraph. See outline or observe change of topic.

Do not paragraph; topic has not changed.

Transpose, (Mark to be used in the body of the text,
not in the margin.)

Some letter, word, or words omitted here; or else a sepa-
ration into two words is necessary. (Mark to be
used in the body of the text, not in the margin.)

Strike out or omit.

Hyphen lacking or word wrongly divided.

Period omitted.

Error.

Probable error.

or\ Calls attention to a letter or to a place for punctuation.

(Mark to be used in the body of the text, not in the
margin.)

APPENDIX II

ENGLISH WORDS

Norte. — In connection with sections I and II of this Appendix may
be read the Historical Sketeh of the English Language given in Maxwell’s
Advanced Lessons in English Grammar, pp. 314-322.

I. Sources of English words,— There are three
main elements in the English vocabulary: the Saxon,
the French, and the Latin. The French itself is
largely of Latin origin. The mingling of the Saxon
and the French elements, five to six hundred years
ago, formed the English language. Many. words
since then have been added from the Latin and the
Greek and from most of the modern languages.

The original inhabitants of England were Celts,
‘called Britons. From about 100 a.p. to 400 a.p.
they were subject to Rome. The Roman soldiers
withdrew in 410 a.p. Very few modern English
words are derived either from the Celtic or from the
Latin of those times.

The Saxons came from Germany, and conquered
and settled England during the fifth century A.D.
(beginning in the year 449).

Six centuries later, in the year 1066, the Norman
French, under William the Conqueror, invaded Eng-

221

222 APPENDIX II

land and subjugated the Saxons. Thereafter, for
about three hundred years, there were two distinct
languages spoken in England,—the Saxon, mostly
by the humbler classes and the serfs; the French, by
the Normans. Chaucer, the author of the Canterbury
Tales, was the first great writer in the English or
mixed tongue (1340-1400). His English is not so
‘much unlike ours of to-day but that it can be read
with very little trouble.

When and how did the Latin contributions come
in? Easily and frequently. There were many
monks and churchmen in England from early Saxon
times on. All these read and spoke Latin. Later,
in the times following the period when Chaucer lived,
there were many scholars and learned men who
wrote Latin, although English was their native
tongue. When such men wrote English, they natu-
rally introduced many Latin words in an “ Englished”
form. Examples of this late Latin contribution
(fifteenth century) may be taken from this and the
preceding paragraph: century, invaded, subjugated,
distinct, author, contributions, frequently, period (origi-
nally from Greek), naturally, introduced, preceding,
paragraph (originally from Greek). Note that these
words are rather long. If you consult a dictionary,
you will see how very like they are to the Latin (or
Greek) words from which they are derived.

The following examples of words of French extrac-
tion are found in the same two paragraphs. (Note
that these words are a good deal changed from the

ENGLISH WORDS 223

Latin originals. Some French words are not of
Latin, but of Germanic or of Celtic origin.)

language (Fr. langage, from langue, from L. lingua, a tongue).

class (Fr. classe, from L. classis, an assembly, a fleet).

serf (Fr. from L. servus, a slave, from servio, serve).

humble (Fr. from L. humilis, lowly, from humus, the ground).

very (Old Fr. verai, vray, from supposed Low Latin veracus,
from L. verax, veracis, meaning veracious, truthful).

trouble (Fr. from L. turbula, a little crowd, a disorderly
crowd, from turba, a crowd).

example (Fr. from L. exemplum, a specimen, from eximo,
pick out, buy).

The word “monk,” which was used in the same paragraph,
is from Latin monachus (original Greek meaning, living alone,
solitary). This word, as an English word, goes back to the
earliest days of the Roman church in England. The form of
it in Anglo-Saxon was munec or munuc. The word “scholar”
is from Saxon scélere, from scélu, a school, but this came from
Latin schola, a school (originally Greek). The h in scholar
was introduced much later, to make the word agree with Latin
scholaris, pertaining to a school.

Practically, all the other words in those two para-
graphs are of Saxon origin.

If we liken the history of the English language to
the course of a river, we should imagine the stream
of original Saxon words flowing on with but little
change from the time of the Saxon conquest (fifth
century) to the time of its junction with the Norman
French language (fourteenth century). During those
nine long centuries the Saxon speech accepted a few
words from the conquered Britons (whose descendants
live now mostly in Wales, Ireland, and upper Scot-

224 APPENDIX II

land); a few from the Danes (who invaded England
repeatedly in the ninth and tenth centuries, and
finally set Danish kings for a time on the Saxon
throne); and a few words of Latin or Greek origin
from the monks and priests (the words “monk,”
“ priest’ and “scholar” are examples of this class).
The Saxon also lost many of its word-endings or
inflections. In the early Saxon there were over
fifteen case-forms of the article “the.”

After the great junction of Saxon and French,
five to six hundred years ago, the enlarged stream,
now English, received, in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, many words from the Latin and not a few
from the Greek. As the English people spread over
the globe, they encountered many languages and
adopted many words.

_ Thus, from the American Indian we have wigwam, papoose,
squaw, canoe, and the like. So we have from the Spanish such
words as alligator, potato, negro, cork, cigar, tornado, and
vanilla; from the Italian many words, such as balcony,
cameo, cartoon, soprano, piano, macaroni, pistol, and umbrella.
From French we have blonde, bouquet, bivouac, trousseau ;
from German, nickel, meerschaum, quartz; from Hebrew,
abbey, cherub, Sabbath; from Arabic, alcohol, algebra, zero,
gazelle, lute; and so on from many other languages.

The histories of the following words are peculiar and
interesting, worth copying into your notebook: calico, copper,
dollar, check, gypsy, tantalize, assassin, panic, sincere, tariff,
salary, silly, slave, vandalism, daisy, dahlia, galvanic, Friday,
July, January. Many other words of curious history will be
found explained, usually with correctness, in Trench’s On the
Study of Words.

ENGLISH WORDS 225

Finally, in recent times, down to the present, as
new discoveries and inventions have been made, and
new sciences developed, many words have been
coined, mostly for scientific or technical use, and
chiefly from Latin and Greek. Examples of such
words are biology, geology, phonograph, telephone,
telegraph, photograph, photosphere, spectroscope,
electrolysis.

II. Description of the classes of English words. —
Counting English words as they are listed in a
dictionary, those of Saxon origin are a much less
number than those from the Latin. But the Saxon
or native English words are used, in ordinary writing
or speech, far more than the words of Latin origin.
They nearly always outnumber the latter, if we group
according to origm the words used on a page in a
book, because the Saxon words are used over and
over. We can easily write whole pages without
using a word of Latin origin, but we could hardly
write one sentence without using words of Saxon
origin. |

The Saxon element in English includes, generally
speaking : —

1. All the pronouns.

2. All the prepositions.

3. All the conjunctions.

4. All the numeral adjectives, except second, and
the articles.

5. All the auxiliary verbs.

WRIT. IN ENG. —15

226 APPENDIX II

6. Most of the nouns, adjectives, verbs, and ad-
verbs expressing simple everyday ideas.

Words of French and Latin origin dre usually more
general and abstract. Compare the following : —

Words of Saxon origin From French or Latin
walk, go, run, skip, hop, jump, move, proceed,
leap, fly, swim, crawl, |
eye, nose, ear, hand, tongue, cheek, feature, part,
foot, head,
red, yellow, green, blue, brown, tint, color,
black, white,
father, mother, brother, sister, parent, relative,
son, daughter,
fox, bird, fowl, snake, whale, bee, beast, creature, ani-
cat, hound, wolf. mal.

Perhaps the simplest way to compare the French
and the Latin elements in English is to place side by
side, in pairs, English words: (1) from the Norman
French, adopted mostly in the fourteenth century ;
(2) from the Latin direct, coming in later than
the fourteenth century — mostly book-words at first,
only gradually adopted into speech.

(1) From the (2) From the (3) The Latin
French Latin words
benison benediction benedictionem
sir, sire senior senioren
feat fact factum
chance cadence cadentiam
loyal legal legalem
royal, real regal regalem

poor pauper pauperem

ENGLISH WORDS 227

poison potion potionem
caitiff captive captivum
sure secure securum
treason tradition traditionem
frail fragile fragilem
parcel particle particulam
sever separate - separatum

If it seems hard to understand how the words in
the first column came from those in the third, we
must remember that for centuries there existed
no written French or English, and that until -after
the invention of printing in the fifteenth century,
there were so few books that languages were pre-
served only by custom in speech. Spoken languages
naturally change from period to period. Words are
usually worn down and shortened in common speech,
as may be seen from the table just given.

III. Word-formation.

In Maxwell’s Advanced Lessons in English Grammar, Part II, Chap-
ter IV, pp. 206-221, there is to be found a much fuller treatment of the
subject of word-formation in English than can or need be given here.
There are also given exercises.

The following are short lists of prefixes and suffixes
of English words : —

ENGLISH PREFIXES LATIN PREFIXES GREEK PRE-

for-, fore-, mis-, un-, ab-, ad-, ante-, bi-, contra., FIXES

be-, with-, en-. cum- (French col-, com-, anti-, auto-,
coun-, cor-), di-, in-, ex-, dia-, epi-,
per-, pre-, pro-, post-, se-, hemi-, mono-,
semi-, sub-, super-, trans-. peri-, syn-.

228

ENGLISH SUFFIXES

For nouns:

-dom, -hood, -ing,
-ness, -ship, -ie, -ling,
-ster, -ard.

For adjectives:

-ed, -ern, -en, -fold,
-ful, «ish, -less, -ly,
-some, -wise, -ward.
For verbs:

en.

APPENDIX II

LATIN SUFFIXES

For nouns:

-age, -ance, -ence, -ion,
-ment, -tude, -ty, -y, -or,
ary, -er, -ate, -ist.

For adjectives :

-acious, -al, -ant, -able, -ar,
-ent, -ible, -ic, -id, -il, -ive,
-lent, -ose (-ous), -und.

For verbs:

-ate, -fy.

GREEK SUF-

FIXES
For nouns:
-S18.

For adjec-
tives:
-1¢.

For verbs:
-ize (-ise).

The following are some of the most useful Latin
and Greek root-words employed in English word-

formation.

burn, pp. arsus, burnt.)

Latin root-words, (a) verbs

ag-, do (pp. actus)
am-, love
aud-, hear

cap-, take (pp. captus)
cad-, fall (pp. casus)

cred-, believe
ced-, go, come
dic-, say
doc-, teach
duc-, lead

fac-, make; fi-, become

leg-, read

mitt-, send (pp. missus)
nasc-, be born (pp. natus)

ager, field
anima, soul
animus, mind
annus, year
aqua, water
caput, head
carn-, flesh
cura, care
deus, god
finis, end
gradus, step
gravis, heavy
homo, man
littera, letter

(pp. stands for past participle, as ard-,

(0) nouns and adjectives

ENGLISH WORDS

pet-, seek

port-, carry

reg-, rule

stru-, build (pp. structus)
tang-, touch (pp. tactus)
sci-, know

scrib-, write (pp. scriptus)
spir-, breathe

terr-, frighten

vid-, see

vor-, eat, devour

229

m, great
manus, hand
mors, death
multus, many
novus, new
nox, night
omnis, all
ped-, foot
rota, wheel
terra, land
unus, one

Greek root-words

anthropos, man
bios, life

deka, ten
dunamis, power
_ ge, earth
graphein, write (gramma,

something written)
hekaton, a hundred
hippos, horse
kuklos, circle
logos, speech, treatise
metron, measure
monos, alone

opsis, sight (optikos, pertain-
ing to the sight)

orthos, right

petra, rock

phemi, speak

philein, love

phone, sound

skopein, see

sophia, wisdom

sphaira, globe

tele, distant, far

theos, god

tupos, a type, a figure

Properly coined words should combine Greek
affixes with Greek words, Latin with Latin, and
English with English. Such words as walkist, elec-
trocution (from Gk. electron, amber, and the termi-
nation of the Latin word executionem, from ex and
sequor, pp. secutum, follow), shadowgraph, burglarize,
and cablegram, are badly coined.

230 APPENDIX Ii

IV. Style as affected by the derivation of words. —

In each of the following two selections, both taken
from Irving’s Stratford on Avon, in the Sketch-Book,
count up the number of words you take to be of
Saxon origin and those of classical origin. In which
selection is used the larger proportion of native Eng-
lish words? Which is the simpler style of writing?
What in the character of the subject-matter made it
natural for Irving to use more Saxon words in one
passage than in the other?

Its situation is quiet and retired: the river runs murmur-
ing at the foot of the churchyard, and the elms which grow
upon its banks droop their branches into its clear bosom. An
avenue of limes, the boughs of which are curiously interlaced,
so as to form in summer an arched way of foliage, leads up
from the gate of the yard to the church porch. The graves
are overgrown with grass; the gray tombstones, some of them
nearly sunk into the earth, are half covered with moss, which
has likewise tinted the reverend old building. Small birds

have built their nests among the cornices and fissures of the
' walls, and keep up a continual flutter and chirping; and rooks
are sailing and cawing about its lofty gray spire.

As I crossed the bridge over the Avon on my return, I
paused to contemplate the distant church in which the poet
lies buried, and could not but exult in the malediction which
has kept his ashes undisturbed in its quiet and hallowed vaults.
What honor could his name have derived from being mingled
in dusty companionship with the epitaphs and escutcheons
and venal eulogiums of a titled multitude? What would a
crowded corner in Westminster Abbey have been, compared
with this reverend pile, which seems to stand in beautiful
loneliness as his sole mausoleum! The solicitude about the
grave may be but the offspring of an overwrought sensibility ;

ENGLISH WORDS 231

but human nature is made up of foibles and prejudices; and
its best and tenderest affections are mingled with these facti-
tious feelings.

The words italicized in the following selection
(from Irving’s Westminster Abbey) are of Latin or
classical origin. Note the fine effect they produce
by being placed in contrast with the simple and
homely Saxon words.

The time must come when its gilded vaults, which now
spring so loftily, shall lie in rubbish beneath the feet; when,
instead of the sound of melody and praise, the wind shall
whistle through the broken arches, and the ow] hoot from the
shattered tower — when the garish sunbeam shall break into
these gloomy mansions of death; and the ivy twine round the
fallen column ; and the foxglove hang its blossoms about the
nameless urn, as if in mockery of the dead. Thus man passes
away; his name perishes from record and recollection; his his-
tory is as a tale that is told, and his very monument becomes
a ruin.

APPENDIX III

RULES FOR PUNCTUATION, CAPITALIZATION, AND
SPELLING

Norse. — These rules are adapted and condensed from Maxwell's
Advanced Lessons in English Grammar, pp. 270-278 (punctuation) ;
pp. 69-75 (rules for use of capitals and for spelling).

I. Punctuation.

Punctuation is necessary to mark (1) the close of a
sentence ; (2) pauses required in reading; (3) the
elements or parts of sentences to be joined in mean-
ing. It is a mistake to think punctuation of little
importance. Accurate punctuation shows accurate
thinking, an understanding of the construction of
the sentence, and of the relations of the parts. You
cannot punctuate correctly unless you think clearly
and understand what you wish to say.

(a) The points used to mark the completion of a
sentence are the period (.), the question mark (?),
and the exclamation mark (1).

The period marks the end of every declarative and
every imperative sentence, unless the words are
spoken with strong feeling; then the exclamation
mark is used; as, Go at once!

The period is also used to mark abbreviations ; as,
The Rev. John Sinclair, D.D., read from Rev. xxi.

232

PUNCTUATION 238

The question mark is used after an interrogative
sentence, and after a direct question contained in any
sentence; example of the latter: When he asked
“What are you going to do about it?” we made no
reply.

The exclamation mark if used after declarative and
imperative sentences expressing strong feeling, com-
monly after interjections, and after the nominative of
address when strong feeling is to be indicated; as,
John! John! What a mess you have made! Oh
dear! What shall I do?

Never place together a question mark and a period,
or an exclamation mark and a period. Use one or
the other.

Exercise 147. Terminal punctuation. — Put proper
marks at the ends of the following sentences : —

1. Breaking through that white streak of water near the
shore comes a dark something, which soon takes form and is
seen to be asteamer What a variety of craft haunt the lake
The largest are these tall steamers, taller still for their red
stacks At night, with their colored lights, they look like
jeweled slippers

2. Let us think over this passage and examine its words
First, is it not singular to find Milton assigning to St. Peter
not only his full episcopal function, but the very types of it
which Protestants usually refuse most passionately’ His “ mi-
tred ” locks Milton was no bishop lover; how comes St. Peter
to be “ mitred ”

(b) The poimts used within a sentence are the
comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the dash
(—); quotation marks (“”’), the parentheses [( )].

234 APPENDIX III

The comma is used : —

1. To separate the nominative of address from the
rest of the sentence; as, O Cassius, thou art yoked
with a lamb.

2. To mark the beginning of a direct quotation (but
see also the rules for the use of the colon); as, ‘The
judge said, “Gentlemen of the jury, what is your ver-
dict?” If the quotation is not a question, and pre-
cedes the clause on which it depends, it is followed
by a comma; as, “ We are unable to agree,’ answered
the foreman. If the clause on which a quotation de-
pends is inserted between parts of the quotation, it 1s
cut off by two commas; as, “We have,” said the
- foreman, “been unable to agree; but, if your Honor
will let us have a little more time, we may be able
to reach a conclusion.”

3. To separate a very long subject from its verb ;
as, Whatever you may wish to do about this matter
of answering his letter, will be agreeable tome. Here
the subject is the whole clause, and not letter or an-
siwering, as might be carelessly supposed. In general,
however, a single comma is not to be used between the
subject and the verb.

4. To cut off, at its beginning and at its end, a
parenthetical or explanatory expression. This in-
cludes : —

Thrown-in words, like however, to be brief, finally,
besides, indeed, in fact, moreover.
Nouns in apposition, especially when they are ac-

PUNCTUATION 235

companied by modifiers; as, John Brown, the leader
of the attack, was executed.

Relative clauses, when they are not restrictive but
coordinate ; as, John Brown, who led the attack, was
executed.

Adjective and adverbial elements when they are
inserted for explanation ; as, General Wolfe, wounded
and dying, learned of his great victory. That story
is, in several particulars, improbable.

Adverbial clauses, when inserted for explanation ;
as, He determined that, if the chance were given
him, he would set out for the Philippines at once.

5. To separate words in series, conjunctions being
omitted ; as, Poetry, music, painting, and sculpture
are not the only fine arts. He was tall, broad-
shouldered, muscular, and active.

6. To separate words in pairs, for the same rea-
son; as, The flower and the star, the pebble and
the mountain, the raindrop and the sea, all are
the work of His hand.

7. To separate clauses in a compound sentence,
when they are related in meaning; as, The rivulet
becomes a brook, and the brook becomes a creek,
and the creek becomes a river.

The parentheses are used to inclose a remark that
might be omitted without destroying the sense of the
sentence; as, Know then this truth (enough for man
to know), virtue alone is happiness below.

It is a fault to make use of long parentheses.
They interrupt, and often obscure the sense.

236 APPENDIX III

The quotation marks are used : —

1. To inclose direct quotations.” If a quotation in-
cludes another, the latter is inclosed in single inverted
commas, to distinguish it from the main quotation,
which is inclosed in the double inverted commas; as,
‘“‘ Aha!” said my lord, “I go on the principle that ‘a
bird in the hand 1s worth two in the bush.’ ”

2. Sometimes to indicate titles of books, and nick-
names.

The dash is used : —

1. To mark an abrupt turn in a sentence; as, I
will tell you— but no! why should I not keep my
own counsel ?

2. To mark a significant pause that should be
made in reading; as, Now you listen to what I have
to say — I will never give you what you demand!

3. To mark words in apposition, or other paren-
thetical expressions; as, This work was performed
four hundred years ago, and—such is the merit of
good work — it endures to this day.

As a rule, it is better usage to set off parenthetical
expressions by commas, than to set them off by dashes
or parentheses.

Exercise 148. Punctuation. — Which of the above rules
for the use of commas, etc., are illustrated in the fol-
lowing sentences ?

1. There were the first editions of the immortal “ Elia,” he
who had the “delightful art of making a delightful summer
out of a single swallow.”

PUNCTUATION 237

2. Shakspere’s town hbrary has now every volume except
The Merchant of Venice, which was, for some reason, never
purchased.

3. Why should we judge him by his words, when all his
works are there —a whole collection of them, by the by, is
now being exhibited in Boston — to prove his power ?

4. The studio —a bare barn of a place, outside the Porta
del Popolo — stood on a slope commanding a view of the mon-
astery in which Luther, they say, dwelt, when he was planning
his defiance of the Church. .

5. The food was bad, the meal ill served, the landlord
(heaven bless him!) was dirty, but what a talk we had about
work, play, books, art, life!

Exercise 149. Punctuation. — Punctwate, according to
the rules for the use of the comma, etc., the following
sentences : —

1. Vedder said What do you think I have been studying
lately fungi I showed an Italian friend some drawings which
I had made from some specimens Why bless my soul said he
you are going into this fungus line quite seriously are you not

2. Now having known him a good many years I realized
what this task involved

3. Well I met a sort of second cousin there Alice Brooks
I’ve known her since we were children

4, The ashes sighed he of my fondest hopes

5. Ah Mr Lever he said very blandly I didn’t know you
were in England in fact I was not even aware of your having
asked for leave

The semicolon is the most commonly used stop, if
we except the comma and the period. The semicolon
is, in general, used when the comma would not indi-
cate so distinct a pause or so definite a division as 1s

238 APPENDIX III

desired. If several codrdinate clauses, for example,
follow one another, and each or any of them contains |
commas for minor pauses, the semicolon must be
used to separate such clauses; as, ‘‘Still more sur-
prised were they to learn that, in order to have
bread, wheat had to be sown in the ground; that
grass was necessary for the production of milk; and
that wine did not flow out of casks on a turning of a
key.” Examples of another use of the semicolon
are to be found throughout this Appendix, before
the word “as”, when this is followed by a sentence
given for illustration. |

The colon is used most commonly as follows :—

1. To indicate that a list, enumeration, or state-
ment is to follow; as, “ The following are the princi-
pal rules for punctuating the possessive case: First,”’
etc. Under this rule comes the use of a colon
before a direct quotation, when the quotation is to
be marked as especially emphatic; as, The dealer
then uttered these words: ‘“‘I believe you have been
trying to cheat me. I refuse to deal with you at
all.” :

2. In a long complex or compound sentence, after
groups of clauses, or sometimes phrases, when the
members of the groups are separated by semicolons ;
as, If the man walked slowly, the lion lessened his
pace; if the man stopped, the beast did likewise:
but in spite of this seeming imitation of the man’s
movements, the lion was gradually gaining.

PUNCTUATION 239

(c) Miscellaneous marks.

(1) The apostrophe (’) is used to mark the omission
of a letter when the abbreviated word is to be pro
nounced as it is spelled; as, don’t, o'clock, o’er.

The apostrophe is a necessary part of all nouns in
the possessive case, smgular or plural. The rules for
writing the possessive case are as follows : —

1. Nouns in the singular number add ’s to the
nominative form, whether the nominative ends in s or
not; as, the man’s, Charles’s, Dickens’s, Mr. Jones’s,
mouse’s.

2. In the plural, if the nominative plural does not
end in s or the sound of s, the apostrophe and s are
added ; as, men’s, children’s.

But if, as is usual, the -plural already ends im s.
only the apostrophe is added; as, girls’ hats, the
Joneses’ house.

In short, to form the possessive, always add ’s,
except in the plural when the nommative plural ends
ins.

In certain expressions, as, for goodness’ sake, for
conscience’ sake, the s is omitted because there are
already two s sounds present.

The pronouns ours, hers, yours, its, theirs, are writ-
ten without any apostrophe.

(2) The hyphen (-) is used to connect the parts of
a compound word, as, cathedral-tower; also to sepa-
rate a word into its syllables. This usually is neces-
sary only at the end of a line where there is room for
only a part of a word. A word of one syllable should

240 APPENDIX III

never be written part on one line and part on the
next. Words of more than one syllable should
always be divided between syllables. For instance,
to write alw-ays, or believ-ed, is wrong. In general,
divide words so that the part beginning the next line
shall begin with a consonant; as, re-quired, enumera-
tion (not -ation). However, to divide before the
syllable -mg, when it 1s preceded by a single conso-
nant, is proper; as, follow-ing, eat-ing.

(3) The caret (,) is used to mark an error of omis-
sion in one’s writing. It has been called the “ blunder
mark.”

(4) Marks like * + ¢ § and others are used to direct
attention to a note in the margin or elsewhere.

(5) Underscoring a word once indicates that it
should be printed in italics; twice, in small capitals ;
three times or more, in large capitals, as for headings

or title pages.

II. Use of capital letters.

Begin with capitals : —

1. The first word of every sentence, and of every
line of poetry.

2. Every proper noun, every proper adjective (as
French, Latin), every personified common noun (as,
Then Peace shall smile upon us).

3. Every name or title of the Deity, pronouns
pertaining to the Deity (this rule is to be followed
with judgment ; sometimes the repeated use of capi-

USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 241

talized pronouns becomes tiresome and annoying), and
names of religious denominations.

4. The names of the days of the week, the months
of the year (but not the four seasons of the year,
except when personified), and the four points of the
compass when they denote great regions or sections
of a country ; as, He journeyed west and north till he
had traversed the region called the great Northwest.

5. The important words in the title of a book or
of an essay or of a poem.

6. Titles of honor or respect; as, The Honorable
Member from Ohio; the Duke of Westminster; His
Excellency, the Governor of North Carolina; His
Honor, the Mayor.

7. Words to be particularly emphasized, such as
words denoting an important epoch of history; as,
The period of the Thirty Years’ War.

8. The first word of a direct quotation, except
when only a word, a phrase, or a clause 1s quoted and
made a part of the writer’s own sentence.

9. Write with capitals the pronoun I and the
interjections O, Oh.

III. ules for spelling.

1. Final e silent is generally omitted before a
suffix beginning with a vowel; as, write, writ-ing ;
please, pleas-ing, pleas-ure; grieve, griev-ance ; com-
bine, combining; change, changing; slice, slicing.
But since ¢ and g have the “hard”’ sound before a,
o, and u, the endings ce and ge must be retained

WRIT. IN ENG. —16

242 APPENDIX III

before suffixes ending in a, 0, u. Thus, courageous,
serviceable, changeable. The word singeing retains
the e to distinguish it from singing; dyeing to dis-
tinguish it from dying. Shoeing and agreeable would
be apt to be mispronounced if spelt shoing and
agreable.

2. Final e is generally retained before a suffi be-
ginning with a consonant; as, pale, paleness; dole,
doleful. (Exceptions to this rule are judgment, ac-
knowledgment, wholly, truly, and nursling.)

3. Words ending in a single consonant (preceded
by a single vowel) double the final letter on taking
a suffix beginning with a vowel, if the words are
_ monosyllabic or accented on the last syllable. Thus,
begih, beginning; sit, sitting; underpinning, repel-
lent, befittmg. But if the words are accented on
some other than the last syllable, or if the conso-
nant is preceded by two vowels, the consonant is
not doubled; as, trav’el-er, viv‘id-est, of’fer-ing, wor’-
ship-er, prof’it-ing, fo’cusing, bi‘as-ed ; retaining, toil-
ing, revealing.

4. Words ending in a double consonant usually
retain it when suffixes are added; as, ebb, ebbing;
will, willful; shrill, shrillness. (But note the ex-
ceptions, — almost, altogether, also, although, fulfill,
belfry, welfare.)

5. Words ending in a double consonant usyally
retain it when prefixes are added ; as, farewell, down-
fall, respell, undersell. (Note the exceptions, — until,
and adjectives ending in -ful.)

SPELLING 243

6. Final y, if preceded by a consonant, is usually
changed to 7 when a suffix is added which begins
with a vowel (except the suffix -ing); as, happy,
happiest, happiness; fly, flies; rely, reliance; accom-
pany, accompaniment; very, verily; duty, dutiful.
(Duteous, beauteous, and plenteous are not formed
according to the rule.) |

7. Final y, preceded by a vowel, or before the
suffix -ing, is retained; as, valley, valleys; monkey,

monkeys; spy, spying; pity, pitying. —

APPENDIX IV.
VERSES AND VERSE MAKING

Some knowledge of versification is valuable for
two reasons: it is an indispensable aid in the
appreciative and musical reading of poetry, and
the writing of verse is very excellent practice in
the use of English. Merely for the skill it gives
in choice and manipulation of words and the varied
phrasing of sentences, it is an exercise that develops
deftness, command of diction, and a nice ear for
sound. It is therefore well worth while for a student
occasionally to try his hand at verse making —tak-
ing care to see beforehand that he has something to
say, and that he has a good model to follow in his
versification.

The subject of prosody, or versification, is treated
at some length in Maxwell’s Advanced Lessons in
English Grammar (pp. 306-318) and in most books
on rhetoric. It includes the following divisions : —

1. Meter, or measuring of lines into portions
called feet.

2. Ehyme, the agreement of the final syllables
of lines in sound and accent. A correct rhyme con-
sists in identity of accented vowel sounds, followed

244

VERSIFICATION 245

by identical consonant sounds, and preceded by unlike
consonant sounds. :
Examples of correct rhyming : —

Battle, rattle; relate, state; range, strange; alley, valley;
prodigious, religious; importunate, unfortunate.

Examples of incorrect or imperfect rhyming : —

(a) Corresponding syllables not accented alike; as, prelate,
relate’; tak‘ing, cling’; recline’, i'odine.

(6) Sounds of vowels different; as, door, boor; care, far ;
river, never; disdain, amen; whistle, rustle; element, aliment.

(c) Vowels followed by unlike consonant sounds; as, cling-
ing, singeing; wet, red; through, cough.

(d) Vowels preceded by like consonant sounds ; as, scene,
seen; restrain, strain; allay, delay; persuasion, dissuasion.

3. Stanza-form, or the grouping of lines into
sets of a fixed number of lines, with a certain arrange-
ment of rhymes. Examples of stanzas are the coup-
let, the triplet, the ballad stanza, the Spenserian
stanza, the elegiac stanza, the rondeau, and the
sonnet. Most of these are explained or exemplified
later in this Appendix.

Of the above three divisions the first is the only
one we shall consider at any length.

Meter.— Meter means measure. Poetry, like music,
is divided into measures, each requiring the same
amount of time. You can therefore beat time for
verses just as for a piece of music. Asin musicf ¢
has the same amount of time as @°2 € or 6 §@, so
in poetry, three syllables may fill a measure having

246 APPENDIX IV

the same time allowance as one containing only two
syllables. For example, take these lines from Low-
ell’s Vision of Sir Launfal (the syllables that have
the beat are marked with an accent):

Down swépt the chill wind from the mountain pedks,
From the snow five thousand simmers old.

Each of these lines has four measures, or feet, as
they are called; but in some cases there are three
syllables to a foot, and in others only two. If we
wished to represent the movement of these lines by
musical characters, we should put : —

CC h6PF Eb OC yeEer \Cf
Beit f '€ fF ICP

But since in every foot there is one syllable given
more time than any other, the long syllables are
usually represented by bars, and the short by curves,
thus : —

WV

VW _ a oe ed v=
Vv — Vv ed 1 ied

This is less accurate than the representation by musi-
cal notes, but it 1s more convenient.

Sometimes the first syllables in the feet are the
long ones. For example the nursery jingle : —

Little Jack Hérner sdt in a cérner,
Edting his Christmas pie,

has a movement which may be represented thus : —

-_—wWVWV — WV _

VERSIFICATION 247

Here again we find feet of three syllables given the
same time as feet of two syllables. (Beat time as
you repeat the lines. The beat should fall on the
long syllables.)

Kinds of feet.— The different kinds of feet are
named according to the number of syllables they
have, and the position of the accented or long
syllables.

Feet of two syllables are either —v or v—.

Trochaic feet have the long syllable first, as in
the words re’cent, moth’er, differ, be’ing. The fol-
lowing are trochaic lines of verse : —

Tell me not in mournful numbers,
Life is but an empty dream. — LoNGFELLow.

Lambie feet have the long syllable second, as in
the words combine’, return’, along’, intent’. The fol-
lowing are iambic lines of verse :—

You all did see that on the Lupercal
I thrice presented him a kingly crown. — SHAKSPERE.

Feet of. three syllables are either — Uv or vu —.

Dactylic feet have the long syllable first, as in
the words, syllable, clat’tering, cyl‘inder, cel’ebrate.
The following are dactylic lines of verse : —

Cannon to right of them,
Cannon to left of them. — TENNYSON.

Anapestic feet have the long syllable last, as in the
words, entertain’, interfere’, contradict’, undertake’.
The following are anapestic lines of verse : —

248 APPENDIX IV

The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold,
And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold.
— Byron.

We have already seen in scanning (that is, mark-
ing off into their feet) the lines beginning, ‘“ Down
swept the chill wind” and “ Little Jack Horner,”
that iambic and anapestic feet may easily be used in
the same line, because they have the long syllable
at the end of the foot; and that trochaic and dactylic
feet, may be used in the same line, because they both
begin with the long syllable. In either case it 1s
easy to read two short syllables in the time of one,
just as in music two sixteenth notes may take the
place of one eighth note.

For the sake, then, of simplicity, we may say that
there are only two types of movement in English
verse: the iambic (I am’, I am’, I am’, etc.), and the
trochaic (tro’chee, tro’chee, etc.); and in either kind
two shorts may take the place of one, forming, in
the iambic movement, an anapeestic foot, and, in the
trochaic movement, a dactylic foot.

Kinds of lines, as to length.

1. Lines of one foot are called monom’‘eter lines.
Examples : —

Iambic.— Away. (As in Herrick’s To Daffodils.)

Anapestic.—On a throne. (In Tennyson’s Merman.)

Trochaic monometers may also be found, but lines of one
foot are rare in any measure.

VERSIFICATION 249

2. Lines of two feet are called dim’eter. Ex-
amples : —

Jambic. — The year’s | last rose.
Trochaic. — Orijana

Anapestic.— Of the moldlering flow’rs.
Dactylic. — Take her up | tenderly.

3. Lines of three feet are called trim’eter. Ex-
amples : —

Iambic. — And I | desire | to rest.

Trochaic. — Neither | moon nor | starlight.
Anapestic.— That he sings | in his boat | on the bay.
Dactylic. — Chasing each | other so | merrily.

4. Lines of four feet are called tetram’eter. Ex-
amples : —

Iambic. — A seciond voice | was at | mine ear.
Trochaic. — Then the | little | Hia|watha.
Anapestic.— Not a word | to each othler; we kept | the
great pace.
Dactylic. — Brightest and | best of the | sons of the | morn-
ing.

0. Lines of five feet are called pentam’eter. Hx-
amples : —

Iambic. — And built | herself | an evjerlastiing name. (The
iambic pentameter is the most used line in Eng-
lish poetry. Itis sometimes called heroic verse.
As we have seen, anapestic feet may be substi-
tuted for one or more of the iambics in such a
line.)

Trochaic and dactylic. —Over the | sea, with a| motion | slow

and ar|rested.

250 APPENDIX IV

6. Lines of six feet are called hexam’eter. Ex-
amples : —

Iambic. — As one | for knightly jousts | and fierce | encoun|-
ters fit. (The iambic hexameter line is called
an Alexandrine. See-the dictionary.)

Dactylic.— This is the | forest prijmeval; the | murmuring

| pines and the | hemlocks.

7. Lines of seven feet are called heptam’eter. Ex-
ample : —

Iambic.—John Gil|pin was | a citizen | of cred|it and | re-
nown. (Such lines are frequently divided into
two lines, one tetrameter and the other trimeter.)

8. Lines of eight feet are called octom’eter. Ex-
ample : —

Trochaic. — For the | mighty | wind alrises, | roaring | sea-
ward, | and I| go. (Octometers are rarely
used, about the same effect being produced by
two tetrameters.)

Rests.— As there are rests in music — measures
or parts of measures in which no notes are sounded
— so in poetry there are rests or pauses in the meter,
which must have their time allowed, even though no
syllables are uttered. In the following scansions the
letter 7 1s used to mark a rest. If the accent or beat
falls upon a rest the r is italicized. The test of the
accuracy of the scanning of a line is whether the
syllables marked as long, or represented by a straight

VERSIFICATION 251 |
line, really receive the stress or beat of the measure.
Beat time as in music : — |

(a) Sweet and low, sweet and low,
Wind of the western sea —
Low, low, breathe and blow,
Wind of the western sea! — TENNYSON.

Trochaic movement (4 feet, 3 feet, 4 feet, 3 feet) : —

- vi-@/-+¥]-@

—MVMYUiom sy —(r
- @|-@)|-»|-@
—vVvyvil-y — (r)

(b) Break, break, break,
On thy cold gray stones, O sea!
And I would that my tongue could utter
The thoughts that arise in me. — TENNYSON.

Iambic movement (3 feet, 3 feet, 4 feet, 3 feet) : —

m—-| @-|@-
vue l_ uu v=o vu (r)

These selections also well illustrate how dactylic
feet may be used in the trochaic movement, and ana-
peestic feet in the iambic movement.

(c) The fine emphatic effect of the rest is also
shown in the following nursery jingle, especially in
the third line after “ who” : —

Ding, dong, bell,

Pussy’s in the well;
Who put her in?

252 APPENDIX IV

Trochaic movement, 3 feet to a line: —

—(t)|-@|-@
mm" Vim Vv — (r)
—@}-—v]-@)

Run-on lines. — It frequently happens that there is
an extra syllable at the end of a line. In sucha case
this syllable is really a part of the first foot of the
following line.

(a) Thus in the nursery jingle, —

Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard
To get her poor dog a bone ;
When she got there, the cupboard was bare,
And so the poor dog had none,
we have an iambic movement, beginning with a rest,
the feet running 4, 3, 4, 3:— .

(r) — Vvuwm lull UU Y
Vw PuUuVne— Tee

(r) — Vue lune] UU
v—luVve—ftUue

Here the extra syllable at the end of the first line
clearly goes with the first foot of the following line,
making the foot anapestic. Note that the third line
has no extra syllable at the end.

(6) This use of an extra end-syllable is common
in Shakspere’s later and better versification. For
example, we have Hamlet’s familiar lines : —

To be, or not to be, that is the question:
Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,

Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And, by opposing, end them. Todie? To sleep.

VERSIFICATION 253

XN

Iambic movement, 5 feet to a line:

Vv- Soe SS V=—, V=— VW
_— WVWV=— V= > ie V=— VW

v= vol} VvY \O eedl S Aete GAod
_— VV Vv > ie V=— WV
— a Vo VVUV= Vv

Here it will be observed that though the move-
ment is iambic, the second, fourth, and fifth lines
all begin with long or stressed syllables. The short
syllables to fill out the iambic feet in these cases are
found as extra syllables at the ends of the preceding
lines. The first foot in the third line, for a similar
reason, 18 an anapestie foot, whose syllables are:
-fer the slings, vv —

There are illustrated 3 in the last section two other
points frequently exemplified in the best English
poets.

(1) A short syllable is sometimes accented (<).
Thus, in the first line quoted, the word “that ”’ in the
fourth foot is given the beat, as the natural emphasis,
depending on the meaning of the words, requires
“that” to be accented. But the regular beat in the
foot falls on “is.” Another example of a short sylla-
ble’s being accented is in this line : —

Take these again, for to the noble mind.
v—|u-|oyvlu—-lu-—

(2) The regular beat in a line may fall on a short
syllable. Such a syllable may be represented by vu

254 APPENDIX IV

Thus, the word “ of,” in the third line quoted, cannot
be read as a long syllable, nor does it receive any
emphasis. But it stands in the place of a long syl-
lable, receiving the regular beat. In such a case give
the syllable its full time in the measure, but do not
in the least emphasize the short syllable, even though
it comes in the place of a long syllable. The word
“to” in the line last quoted is an example. Another
example is the word “for” in this line : —

How does your honor for this many a day ?
vo fu-luxlu-juu-
Or the word “the” in this : —
Is sicklied o’er with the pale cast of thought.

Exercise 150. Scanning. — Wark off in measures the
syllables (and the rests, if any) in the following pieces of
verse; also note the arrangement of the rhyming lines.

1. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
The lowing herd winds slowly o’er the lea,
The plowman homeward plods his weary way,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me.

(This is the opening stanza of Gray’s Elegy Written in a
Country Churchyard. This form of stanza is often called the
elegiac stanza.)

2. And what is so rare as a day in June?
Then, if ever, come perfect days;
Then heaven tries the earth, if it be in tune,
And over it softly her warm ear lays.

— From Lowe v’s Vision of Sir Launfal.

VERSIFICATION 255

3. There was a time when meadow, grove, and stream,
The earth, and every common sight
To me did seem
Appareled in celestial light,
The glory and the freshness of a dream.
It is not now as it hath been of yore;
Turn wheresoe’er I may,
By night or day,
The things which I have seen I now can see no more.
— From WorpswortnH’s Ode on Immortality.

(An ode is a form of poem in which there is permitted much
variety in length of lines and arrangement of rhymes.)

4. Lives of great men all remind us
We can make our lives sublime,
And, departing, leave behind us
Footprints on the sands of time. — LoNGFELLOW.

5. I had a little pony, his name was Dapple Gray ;
I lent him to a lady, to ride a mile away.
She whipped him, she slashed him, and rode him through
| the mire:
I would not lend my pony now for all the lady’s hire.
— MoTHER GoosE.

6. Little Tommy Tittlemouse
Lived in a little house.
He caught fishes
In other men’s ditches. — MotHER GOoSE.

7. Sweet are the uses of adversity
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head;
And this our life, exempt from public haunt,
Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,
Sermons in stones, and good in everything!
— From SHaksperre’s.As You Like It.

(Verse that does not rhyme is called blank verse.)

256 APPENDIX IV

8. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods,
There is a rapture on the lonely shore,
There is society where none intrudes,
By the deep sea, and music in its roar ;
I love not man the less, but nature more,
From these our interviews, in which I steal
From all I may be, or have been before,
To mingle with the universe, and feel
What I can ne’er express, yet cannot all conceal.

—From Byron’s Childe Harold.

(This stanza is an example of the Spenserian stanza, so
called because it is that used in Edmund Spenser’s great alle-
gorical poem, The Faerie Queene. Note the arrangement of
the rhymes, and the closing of the stanza with an Alexandrine,
or six-foot line.)

Verse writing. — Most verses are simple and regular
in movement and scansion, and as mere verses not
hard to write. The easiest forms for the beginner
to attempt are the following : —

(1) The couplet (two rhyming lines, each containing
five feet, or each containing four feet). Examples: —

Pentameter couplets, iambic : —

But most by numbers judge a poet’s song,
And smooth or rough, with them, is right or wrong.
— Pope.

Sir knight, though I have asked thy life, yet still
Thy destiny depends upon my will. — CHauceEr.
Tetrameter couplets, iambic : ~

Disdains against its will to stay,
And struggles out, and flies away. — BuTer.

VERSIFICATION 257

Beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth
Of simple beauty and rustic health. — WHITTIER.

The train from out the castle drew,
But Marmion stopped to bid adieu. — Scort.

Tetrameter couplet, trochaic : —
Come, and trip it as you go,
On the light fantastic toe. — M1LTon.

Exercise 151. Writing in couplets. — The couplet being
well adapted to descriptive and narrative verse, write the
following jingles and verses tn couplets.

1. Complete the following nonsense couplets (tetrameter): —
Ten little kittens, ready to dine,
One choked on a bone, and then there were nine.

Nine little kittens
—— eight, ete.

2. Complete this alphabet jingle : —

A is an archer, steady and brave,

B is a barber, ready to shave,

C is a cormorant, greedy and strong,
D is a doctor whose bill is as long.

3. Write in four-foot couplets of trochaic movement, includ-
ing dactylic feet if necessary, a comic anecdote, found in some
book or newspaper, or any of the stories found on page 107.

4. Write in five-foot couplets of iambic movement an ac-
count of a picnic or an excursion. (If preferred, the iambic
tetrameter couplet may be used, with anapestic feet, intro-
duced as desired.)

(2) The ballad stanzas of four lines are easy to
write and pleasant to read. They are suited for
lively narration and description. Examples : —

WRIT. IN ENG. —17

258 “APPENDIX IV

Iambic, 4, 3, 4, 3, rhyming second and fourth lines : —
About, about, in reel and rout
The death fires danced at night ;
The water, like a witch’s oils,
Burnt green, and blue, and white. — CoLERIDGE.

Iambic, 4, 4, 4, 4, rhyming second and fourth lines : —
He was no sooner over the river,
Down in the forest to take the air,
But eighty merchants of London city
Came kneeling before King Henry there.

—QOLp BALLAD.

Exercise 152. Writing of ballad verse.— Put into
ballad verse the following little story:—

The town rat and the country rat.— A town rat politely
invited a country rat to dinner. They were to have some ripe
old cheese and a well-cooked quail. The feast at last was
spread out in a cozy corner, and merrily they set to eating;
but hardly had they well begun, when a sudden racket at the
door alarmed them, and they both scampered away as fast as
they could. When the noise was over they returned: “Come,”
said the city rat, “let us finish our meal.” — “Not a nibble
more for me,” said the rustic rat. “You come dine with me
to-morrow, where all is quiet and safe. I am not envious of
your life, for I have no love for pleasure when it is mixed
with fear.”

Exercise 153. Verse writing. — (a) Put into ballad
stanzas of either of the types mentioned above, the story
of some book or tale you have recently read.

(6) Write jingles or verses in other stanza-forms, such
as are exemplified in this Appendix or may be found
elsewhere. These may be nonsense verses, or versified
anecdotes, real or imaginary. Do not attempt any seri-
ous verse for some years to come (if ever).

APPENDIX V

NOTES ON AUTHORS REFERRED TO OR QUOTED
IN THIS BOOK

Joseph Addison, famous English writer of essays (and a few
poems). 18th ec. (1672-1719). The Spectator Papers
(1711-1714).

Louisa M. Alcott, American story writer. Daughter of Bron-
son Alcott, a friend of Emerson. 19th c. (1831-1888).
Little Women (1867).

James Lane Allen, American novelist (1849- ). The
Choir Invisible.

Francis Bacon, great English lawyer, statesman, philosopher,
and essayist. 17th c. (1561-1626). Novum Organun, in
Latin, 1620; Essays, in English (1597-1625).

Ballads, old narrative poems by unknown bards. Some manu-
scripts date back to the thirteenth and fourteenth centu-
ries. A good convenient and interesting collection of them
has been prepared by Professor F. B. Gummere, and pub-
lished by Ginn & Co., Boston. The standard collection is
that of Professor Child, 10 vols., Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

George Bancroft, American historian. 19th c. (1800-1891).
History of the United States, 12 vols. (1854-1882).

William Black, English novelist (1841-1898). A Princess
of Thule, Madcap Violet, etc.

R. D. Blackmore, English novelist. 19th c. (1825-1900).
Lorna Doone. .

James Boswell, famous for his Life of Samuel Johnson. 18the.
(1740-1795).

259

260 APPENDIX V

Charles Brockden Brown, the earliest American novelist. Late
18th c. (1771-1810). Wieland (1798); Arthur Mervyn
(1800).

Robert Browning, great English poet. 19th ce. (1812-1890).
Plays, for example, A Blot in the ’Scutcheon; Colombe’s
Birthday; Pippa Passes. Long poems: The Ring and the
Book; Sordello. Many much-loved short poems.

John Bunyan, English writer, famous for his Pilgrim’s Progress.
17th c. (1628-1688).

Edmund Burke, great Irish orator and writer. 18th c. (1730-
1797). Speech on Conciliation with the American Colo-
nies (17 14); Inquiry into the Sublime and Beautiful
(1756).

Lord Byron, English poet. Early 19th c. (17 88-1824). Trage-
dies. Narrative and descriptive poems: Childe Harold;

The Prisoner of Chillon. Lyric poems.

Thomas Campbell, Scottish poet. Early 19th c. a7 77-1844).
The Pleasures of Hope (1798), and narrative poems. |
Cervantes, famous Spanish novelist. 16th c. (1547-1616). Don

Quixote.

Geoffrey Chaucer, the first great English poet. 14th c. (1340-
1400). The Canterbury Tales; The Flower and the Leaf;
The House of Fame.

Samuel T. Coleridge, English poet and reflective writer. Early
19th c. (1772-1834). The Ancient Mariner (1798); several
other fine poems; many prose works.

James Fenimore Cooper, American romance writer. 19th c.
(1789-1851). Sea Tales: The Red Rover, ete. Indian
Tales: The Pathfinder; The Last of the Mohicans, etc.

William Cowper, English poet. 18th c. (1731-1800). Most of
his poems didactic. John Gilpin (1785) not in his usual
manner.

Richard Henry Dana, Jr., American writer. 19th c. (1815—
1882). Two Years before the Mast.

Charles Darwin, English scientist, one of the originators of the
theory of evolution. 19th c. (1809-1882). The Origin

NOTES ON AUTHORS 261

of Species (1859); The Descent of Man; Movements of
Plants; ete.

Richard Harding Davis, American story writer (1864— ).
Van Bibber and Other Stories.

Leonardo da Vinci, great Italian painter, architect, and scien-
tist. 15th c. (1452-1519).

Daniel Defoe, English imaginative writer. Early 18th c. (1661-
1731). Journal of the Plague; Robinson Crusoe (1719).

Thomas Dekker, minor dramatist of Shakspere’s time. Early
17th c. (1570-1637). :

Charles Dickens, one of the most popular of English novelists.
19th c. (1812-1870). Pickwick Papers (1837); Nicholas
Nickleby ; Oliver Twist; Old Curiosity Shop; Dombey and
Son; David Copperfield; Bleak House; Christmas Stories.

Edward Eggleston, American story writer and historian (1837-

). The Circuit Rider; The Hoosier Schoolmaster ;
A History of the United States.

“George Eliot” (Mary Ann Evans, Mrs. Lewes, Mrs. Cross),
the greatest English woman novelist. 19th c. (1819-1880).
Scenes of Clerical Life; Adam Bede (1859); The Mill on
the Floss; Silas Marner (1861); Romola; Felix Holt;
Middlemarch ; Daniel Deronda (1876); also essays and

‘ poems. The standard biography of George Eliot is by her
husband, J. W. Cross.

Ralph Waldo Emerson, American reflective writer and poet.
19th c. (1803-1882). Nature (1836). Essays (1841-1844) ;
Representative Men; English Traits; Conduct of Life.
Poems: Concord Hymn; Woodnotes; May Day; The
Problem. | oo, : Lo

Canon F. W. Farrar, English divine, and author of several theo-

...° logical and historical works (1831- _). Ss

. Hamlin.Garland, American story writer (1860-. __ )...(Subjects

mostly western.) Main Traveled Roads. .. »

_ Oliver Goldsmith, English writer of .poems, prose, and plays.

18th c. (1728-1774). The Deserted Village; The Trav-

eler; The Vicar of Wakefield; She Stoops to Conquer.

962 APPENDIX V

Nathaniel Hawthorne, greatest American romance writer.
19th c. (1804-1864). Twice-Told Tales (1837); The Scar-
let Letter (1850); Mosses from an Old Manse; The House
of the Seven Gables; The Blithedale Romance; Wonder
Book for Boys and Girls; American Note Book; The
Marble Faun.

William Hazlitt, English essayist and critic. Early 19th ec.
(1778-1830).

Oliver Wendell Holmes, American essayist, novelist, and poet.
19th c. (1809-1894). Fhe Autocrat of the Breakfast Table
(1858) ; The Professor at the Breakfast Table; The Poet
at the Breakfast Table; Over the Teacups; One Hundred
Days in Europe. Novels: Elsie Venner; The Guardian
‘Angel. Among his poems: The Chambered Nautilus;
Old Ironsides; The One Hoss Shay. ,

Victor Hugo, great French romance writer and poet. 19th c.
(1802-1885). Les Miserables; Ninety-Three.

Washington Irving, perhaps the most classical of American
writers. 19th c. (1783-1859). Knickerbocker’s History of
New York (1809); The Sketch Book; Bracebridge Hall ;
Tales of a Traveler; The Conquest of Granada; The
Alhambra; Lives of Columbus, Mahomet, Goldsmith, and
(1855) Washington.

G. P. R. James, English novelist. 19th c. (1801-1860).

Samuel Johnson, a great literary man of the eighteenth cen-
tury in England (1709-1784). Poems; English Dictionary
(1755); Rasselas (a tale); Tour of the Hebrides; The
Rambler, The Idler (periodical essays); Lives of the Poets.

Rudyard Kipling, English poet and story writer (1865- ).
Plain Tales from the Hills (stories of life in India) ;
The Phantom ’Rickshaw, and Other Tales; The Day’s
Work; Barrack Room Ballads and Other Poems; The
Seven Seas.

Charles Lamb, one of the most gentle and delightful of English
essayists. 19th c. (1775-1834). Essays of Elia. With his
sister Mary he wrote Tales from Shakspere.

NOTES ON AUTHORS 263

Henry W. Longfellow, the most popular of American poets.
19th c. (1807-1882). Two or three prose romances; Evan-
geline (1847); Golden Legend; Song of Hiawatha (1855) ;
Courtship of Miles Standish; Tales of a Wayside Inn;
Birds of Passage; many favorite short poems; Transla-
tion of Dante’s Divina Commedia (1867).

James Russell Lowell, prominent American essayist, critic,
and poet. 19th c. (1819-1891). Prose: Among my
Books; My Study Windows; Fireside Travels; political
and literary essays and addresses. Poems: The Biglow
Papers (1848 and 1866); The Vision of Sir Launfal,
(1848) ; Commemoration Ode (1865); Under the Willows;
The Cathedral (1869). Some excellent short poems.

Thomas Babington Macaulay, famous English essayist, histo-
rian, and poet. 19th c. (1800-1859). Historical and lit-
erary essays; History of England, five vols.; Lays of
Ancient Rome, and other poems.

John Milton, one of the greatest of English poets and prose
writers. 17th c. (1608-1674). I. Early Poems: Hymn
on the Nativity; Comus; Lycidas; L’Allegro; I] Pense-
roso. II. Prose works: Of Reformation ; Of Education ;
On Divorce; Defense of the English People; Areopa-
gitica. III. Later poems: Paradise Lost; Paradise Re-
gained; Samson Agonistes; Sonnets.

Donald Grant Mitchell (“Ik Marvel”), an American imagina-
tive writer and essayist (1822- ). Reveries of a
Bachelor; Dream Life; English Lands and Letters;
American Lands and Letters.

Agnes Repplier, an American essayist (1855- ). Varia, and
other volumes of brief critical essays.

Dante Gabriel Rossetti, English painter and poet. 19th c.
(1828-1882). Poems (1871), including The Blessed Damo-
zel, Sister Helen, etc.; The Early Italian Poets (1873).
His life and letters, edited by his brother, Wm. M. Ros-
setti, appeared in 1895.

John Ruskin, eloquent and influential writer (English) on art,

- 264 APPENDIX V

ethics, and social economy (1819-1900). His works, col-
lected in thirteen volumes, include Modern Painters, 1843-
1860; Stones of Venice; Seven Lamps of Architecture ;
Ethics of the Dust; Sesame and Lilies; Time and Tide;
Fors Clavigera; ete.

Sir Walter Scott, one of the greatest of novelists, and a poet.
Early 19th c. (1771-1832). The Waverley Novels, mostly
historical, including Waverley, The Monastery, The Abbot,
Ivanhoe, Kenilworth, Quentin Durward, The Heart of
Midlothian, Guy Mannering, The Bride of Lammermoor,
and others almost as well known. His poems include The
Lay of the Last Minstrel (1805), The Lady of the Lake
(1810), and Marmion.

William Shakspere, the greatest of dramatic poets. Late
16th and early 17th c. (1564-1616). His plays are:
(a) Historical: Henry IV, Henry V, Richard ITI, Richard
II., King John. (0) Legendary: Hamlet, Lear, Macbeth,
Cesar, Antony and Cleopatra, Cymbeline. (c) Fictitious:
Merchant of Venice, Midsummer Night’s Dream, As You
Like It, All’s Well that Ends Well, Much Ado about
Nothing, Othello, Winter’s Tale, Tempest. Shakspere also
wrote 154 sonnets and several other poems.

Robert Southey, English poet (laureate next before Words-
worth). 19th c. (1774-1843). His (prose) Life of Nelson
is admirable. a

Laurence Sterne, English novelist and preacher. 18th ec.
(1713-1768). A Sentimental Journey; Tristram Shandy ;
Sermons. -_ | |

_ Robert Louis Stevenson, one of the most admired of recent

i English writers of fiction (1850-1894). Dr.-Jekyll and

.. Mr. Hyde; The Master of Ballantrae; David Balfour;

_.: Treasure Island; The New Arabian Nights. Will of the

~ Mill; and other short stories. Essays: Familiar Studies

of Men and Books; Virginibus Puerisque; Sketches and
Criticisms. Note-books: An Inland Voyage; Travels
_.with a Donkey. Poems: A Child’s Garden of Verses.

NOTES ON AUTHORS 265

Bayard Taylor, American writer of travels, poems, and novels.
19th c. (1825-1878). The Land of the Saracens; Views
Afoot; Boys of Other Countries ; Byways of Europe;
Translation of “ Faust”; Prince Deucalion; Poems of the
Orient. Novels: Hannah Thurston; Story of Kennet.

Jeremy Taylor, English divine. 17th c. (1713-1767). Ser-
mons; Holy Living; Holy Dying.

Alfred Tennyson, the most popular and one of the greatest of
modern English poets. 19th c. (1809-1892). Longer
poems: In Memoriam; Idyls of the King; The Princess;
Maud; Enoch Arden. Dramas: Queen Mary; Harold;
Becket. Many beautiful shorter poems.

Henry D. Thoreau, American naturalist and essayist. 19th c.
(1817-1862). A Week on the Concord and Merrimac
Rivers; Walden; The Maine Woods; Cape Cod; Sum-
mer; Winter. .

Mrs. Humphry Ward, noted English woman novelist (1851-

). Robert Elsmere; David Grieve; Marcella; The
Story of Bessie Costrell.

Daniel Webster, the greatest American orator. 19th c. (1782-
1852). Eulogy on Adams and Jefferson; Bunker Hill
Orations; Speech in Reply to Hayne (1829); Speech on
the Murder of Captain White.

Walt Whitman, regarded by some as one of the greatest of
American poets and writers of prose. 19th c. (1819-1892).
Poems all included under the title, Leaves of Grass. His
prose includes: Collect; Democratic Vistas; Specimen
Days in America; The Wound Dresser.

John Greenleaf Whittier, a well-known American writer of
ballads and other poems. 19th c. (1807-1892). Maud
Muller; The Barefoot Boy; Barbara Frietchie; Snow-
bound; Among the Hills. Many favorite short poems.

Kate Douglas Wiggin (Mrs. Riggs), American writer of juvenile
stories and other books (1857- _—sSY+dy«jw.:—~SOw Thee Birds’ Christ-
mas Carol; The Story of Patsy; Children’s Rights; A
Cathedral Courtship; A Summer in Southern California.

INDEX

Accent in verse, 246, 248.
Accuracy in use of words, 188-191, 199-
203

Adjectives, suggestive use of, 203-205.
Allegory, 185.
Alliteration, 185.
Anapestic feet, 247.
‘‘ And ’”’ habit, 54-56.
-“ And which,”’ 192.
Antithesis, 151.
Apostrophe, uses of, 239.
Argument, defined, 13, 16.
lists of subjects, 16.
general treatment, 209-215.
Arrangement, grammatical, 149, 197.
for clearness, 117-120.
for emphasis, 149-155.
Article, omission of, 114.
Authors, notes on, 259-266.

Balance in sentences, 151, 152.
Ballad stanzas, 257.

Blank verse, 255.

Briefs in argument, 212-214.
Business letters, 170-174.

Capitals, rules for, 240, 241.
Cases of pronouns, 194, 195.
Change of subject, faulty, 56.
Characters in narratives, 102.
Chaucer, 222.
Choice of subjects, 111.
Choice of words, for accuracy, 188-191,
198-203.

for emphasis, 156-159.

for suggestion, 203-205.
Clauses, 76.
Clearness, 111-120.
Climax, 153.
Colon, uses of, 238.

Colors in description, 65.
Comma, uses of, 234, 235.
Comparisons, in description, 62, 63.
and contrasts in paragraphs, 128-
132.
Completeness, in compositions, 18.
in paragraphs, 40.
in sentences, 57, 113-115, 197, 198.
Complex sentences, 79, 81, 84-88. ~
Composition, purpose of, 9-11.
kinds, 12-16.
general] principles of, 18.
Composition books, 11, 36.
Compound sentences, 80-83.
Conjunctions, kinds, 85.
with relatives, 192.
Contents of descriptions, 17-20, 25.
of expositions, 207.
of paragraphs, 121-142.
Correctness, in diction, 187, 188.
in syntax, 57, 118, 192-198.
Couplets in verse, 256.
Creasy, 63.
Criticism, of a composition, 36, 176,
215.
scheme of marks for, 217-220.

Dactylic feet, 247.

Dash, uses of, 236.

Debate, 209-215.

Denying the opposite in sentences, 157,
158

in argument, 209, 210.
Description, defined, 12, 15.
general treatment, 17-36, 60-74.
lists of subjects, 15.
Details, in description, 24, 25, 60.
or particulars in paragraphs, 122-
124.
Direct narration, 147, 148, 166.

267

268

Effects, statement of, in description,
64.
or results, in paragraphs, 132-134.
Elegiac stanza, 254.
Elements of sentences, 75-77.
Emphasis, 143-161.
English language, brief history of,
221-229.
Evangeline, 91.
Exclamatory sentences, 145, 146, 161.
Expositions, defined, 13, 16.
lists of subjects, 16.
genera] treatment, 206-208.

Feet, kinds of, in poetry, 247, 248.

Figures of speech, 177-186.

Formal notes, 163.

Franklin, 99.

French element in English speech, 221-
223, 226.

Glance in description, 24, 25.
Grammatical agreement, of verbs, 195.
of pronouns, 194.
Greek element in English, 222-225,
229.

Headings, in letters, 165.
Homer, 64.

Hugo, 62.

Hyphen, uses of, 239.

Iambic feet, 247.

Iambic movement, 248.

Imitation, 23, etc.

Indention, 37, 41.

Indirect and direct narration, 147, 148,
160.

Infinitive, splitting of, 197.

Informal notes and letters, 164-169.

Instances or examples in paragraphs,

125-127.

Interestingness, 10, 101-103.

Interrogation, 144-146, 161.

Introduction in description, 25.

Inversion, 149, 150.

John Gilpin’s Ride, 93.

INDEX |

| Letter writing, 162-176.

| Lincoln, 92.

| Lines in verse, kinds of, 248-250.
Longfellow, 91, 93.
Loose sentences, 154.

Merchant of Venice, 93.
Metaphor, 181-183.
Meter, 244-248.
Metonymy, 184.

Milton, 91.

Narration, defined, 12, 15.
lists of subjects, 15.
general treatment, 90-110.
use of ‘‘ direct narration,’ 147, 148,
160. °

Omissions in sentences, 57, 113-115.
‘‘Only,”’ position of, 118.
Onomatopoeia, 186.

Outlining, importance of, 24, 40, 41.
in description, 20, 25-29.
narration, 90-93.
in exposition, 207, 208.
in argument, 210-214.

Paragraphs, defined, 37.
general treatment, 37-51, 121-142.
contents of, 121-142. ,
topics of, 37.

Parentheses, 235.

Participles, position of, 118.

Paul Revere’s Ride outlined, 99.

Periods, uses of, 232.

Periodic sentences, 154.

Perry’s Victory, 106.

Personification, 183, 184.

Phrases, 76-78.

Plan, importance, in composition, 18.
in description, 24, 25.

Plot in narratives, 102, 103.

Poems for outlining, 100. .

Point of view in description, 60-62.

Position, for emphasis in sentences,

* 149.

of modifiers, 117-120, 197.

Possessive case, use of, 193.
punctuation of, 239.

Latin elements in English, 222, 226, | Precision in use of words, 188-191, 199-

228.
Letters, parts of, 165-168.

203.
| Prefixes, 227

INDEX 269

Pronouns, obscure in sentences, 115. | Specific words, 158, 159.
agreement with antecedents, 194. | Spelling, rules for, 241-243.

relatives, use of, 86, 189-191. Spenserian stanza, 256.

Proofs, kinds of, 211, 212. Sphinx, the, 104.
strength of, 211. Stanza forms, 245.

Punctuation, 23, 232-240. Style, as affected by derivation, 230,
‘ 231.

Question mark, 233. in narration, 102.

Quotation marks, uses of, 236. Suffixes, 228.
. Suggestion in words, 203-205.
Reasons or causes in paragraphs, 134. | Superscription of a letter, 167-169.

Redundancy, 156. Suspended or periodic sentences, 154,
Refutation, 210. 155.
Relative pronouns, use of, 86. Synecdoche, 185.

restrictive and coordinate, 189-191. | Synonyms, 199-201.

preceded by conjunctions, 192. | Syntax, correctness in, 57, 113, 192-198.
Repetition, 156, 157.
Rests in verse, 250. | “ That,’’ use of, 190.

Rhyme, 244. _ Titles in letters, 167, 168.
Rip Van Winkle outlined, 92. ' Topic sentences, 43.
Run-on lines in verse, 252. Topics of paragraphs, 37.
Transformation, of elements, 77, 83.
Salutations in letters, 164. of sentences, 80-90.
Saxon element in English, 221, 225. Trochaic feet, 247.
Scale in description, 61. Trochaic movement, 248.
Scanning, 248, 254.
Scott, a walk with, 124. Underscoring, 240.
Selection in composition, 18, 20. Unity, in compositions, 18.
Semicolon, uses of, 237, 238. in paragraphs, 40.
Sense impressions in description, 65- in sentences, 53-59, 112.
| Use of words, accurate, 188-191.

Sentences, grammatical kinds, 78-88. . suggestive, 203-205.

balanced, 151, 152. |

loose, 154. Verbs, grammar of, 195, 196.

periodic, 154. | Verses and verse making, 244-258.

inverted, 149, 150.
Setting or scene in narration, 102.

‘¢ Which” habit, 116.

Shakspere, life of, 93. ' * Will’? and “‘ shall,’’ 189, 191.
‘*Shall”’ and ‘‘ will,”’ 189, 191. Word coinage, 229.

Simile, 177-181. . Word formation, 227-229.

Simple sentences, 78, 83. Words, sources of English, 221-225.

Smoothness in paragraphs, 121.

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